{"Dinosaur": {"page_content": {"Classification": {"Taxonomy": ["The following is a simplified classification of dinosaur groups based on their evolutionary relationships, and organized based on the list of Mesozoic dinosaur species provided by Holtz (2007). A more detailed version can be found at [[Dinosaur classification]].", "The dagger (\u2020) is used to signify groups with no living members.", "*Dinosauria", "::*\u2020[[Herrerasauridae|Herrerasauria]] (early bipedal carnivores)", "::*[[Theropoda]] (all bipedal; most were carnivorous)", ":::*\u2020[[Coelophysoidea]] (small, early theropods; includes [[Coelophysis]] and close relatives)", ":::*\u2020[[Ceratosauria]] (generally elaborately horned, the dominant southern carnivores of the Cretaceous)", ":::*[[Tetanurae]] (\"stiff tails\"; includes most theropods)", "::::*\u2020[[Megalosauroidea]] (early group of large carnivores including the semiaquatic spinosaurids)", "::::*\u2020[[Carnosauria]] ([[Allosaurus]] and close relatives, like [[Carcharodontosaurus]])", "::::*\u2020[[Megaraptora]] (group of medium to large sized theropods, often with large hand claws)", "::::*[[Coelurosauria]] (feathered theropods, with a range of body sizes and niches)", ":::::*\u2020[[Compsognathidae]] (early coelurosaurs with reduced forelimbs)", ":::::*\u2020[[Tyrannosauroidea]] ([[Tyrannosaurus]] and close relatives)", ":::::*\u2020[[Ornithomimosauria]] (\"[[Common ostrich|ostrich]]-mimics\"; mostly toothless; carnivores to possible herbivores)", ":::::*\u2020[[Alvarezsauroidea]] (small insectivores with reduced forelimbs each bearing one enlarged claw)", ":::::*[[Maniraptora]] (\"hand snatchers\"; had long, slender arms and fingers)", "::::::*\u2020[[Therizinosauria]] (bipedal herbivores with large hand claws and small heads)", "::::::*\u2020[[Oviraptorosauria]] (mostly toothless; their diet and lifestyle are uncertain)", "::::::*\u2020[[Deinonychosauria]] (small- to medium-sized; bird-like, with a distinctive toe claw)", "::::::*[[Avialae]] (modern birds and extinct relatives)", ":::::::*\u2020[[Archaeopterygidae]] (small, winged theropods or primitive birds)", ":::::::*\u2020[[Scansoriopterygidae]] (small primitive avialans with long third fingers)", ":::::::*\u2020[[Omnivoropterygidae]] (large, early short-tailed avialans)", ":::::::*\u2020[[Confuciusornithidae]] (small toothless avialans)", ":::::::*\u2020[[Enantiornithes]] (primitive tree-dwelling, flying avialans)", ":::::::*[[Euornithes]] (advanced flying birds)", "::::::::*\u2020[[Yanornithiformes]] (toothed Cretaceous Chinese birds)", "::::::::*\u2020[[Hesperornithes]] (specialized aquatic diving birds)", "::::::::*[[Bird|Aves]] (modern, beaked birds and their extinct relatives)", "::*\u2020[[Sauropodomorpha]] (herbivores with small heads, long necks, long tails)", ":::*\u2020[[Guaibasauridae]] (small, primitive, omnivorous sauropodomorphs)", ":::*\u2020[[Plateosauridae]] (primitive, strictly bipedal \"prosauropods\")", ":::*\u2020[[Riojasauridae]] (small, primitive sauropodomorphs)", ":::*\u2020[[Massospondylidae]] (small, primitive sauropodomorphs)", ":::*\u2020[[Sauropoda]] (very large and heavy, usually over long; quadrupedal)", "::::*\u2020[[Vulcanodontidae]] (primitive sauropods with pillar-like limbs)", "::::*\u2020[[Eusauropoda]] (\"true sauropods\")", ":::::*\u2020[[Cetiosauridae]] (\"whale reptiles\")", ":::::*\u2020[[Turiasauria]] (group of Jurassic and Cretaceous sauropods)", ":::::*\u2020[[Neosauropoda]] (\"new sauropods\")", "::::::*\u2020[[Diplodocoidea]] (skulls and tails elongated; teeth typically narrow and pencil-like)", "::::::*\u2020[[Macronaria]] (boxy skulls; spoon- or pencil-shaped teeth)", ":::::::*\u2020[[Brachiosauridae]] (long-necked, long-armed macronarians)", ":::::::*\u2020[[Titanosaur]]ia (diverse; stocky, with wide hips; most common in the Late Cretaceous of southern continents)", "::*\u2020[[Heterodontosauridae]] (small basal ornithopod herbivores/omnivores with prominent [[canine tooth|canine-like teeth]])", "::*\u2020[[Thyreophora]] (armored dinosaurs; mostly quadrupeds)", ":::*\u2020[[Ankylosauria]] ([[scute]]s as primary armor; some had club-like tails)", ":::*\u2020[[Stegosauria]] (spikes and plates as primary armor)", "::*\u2020[[Neornithischia]] (\"new ornithischians\")", ":::*\u2020[[Ornithopod]]a (various sizes; bipeds and quadrupeds; evolved a method of chewing using skull flexibility and numerous teeth)", ":::*\u2020[[Marginocephalia]] (characterized by a cranial growth)", "::::*\u2020[[Pachycephalosauria]] (bipeds with domed or knobby growth on skulls)", "::::*\u2020[[Ceratopsia]] (bipeds and quadrupeds with neck frills; many also had horns)"], "first_par": ["Dinosaurs belong to a group known as archosaurs, which also includes modern crocodilians. Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodilians sprawl out to either side.", "Collectively, dinosaurs as a clade are divided into two primary branches, Saurischia and Ornithischia. Saurischia includes those taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with birds than with Ornithischia, while Ornithischia includes all [[taxon|taxa]] sharing a more recent common ancestor with Triceratops than with Saurischia. Anatomically, these two groups can be distinguished most noticeably by their [[pelvis|pelvic]] structure. Early saurischians\u2014\"lizard-hipped\", from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] sauros (\u03c3\u03b1\u1fe6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2) meaning \"lizard\" and ischion (\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03af\u03bf\u03bd) meaning \"hip joint\"\u2014retained the hip structure of their ancestors, with a pubis bone directed [[anatomical terms of location|cranially]], or forward. This basic form was modified by rotating the pubis backward to varying degrees in several groups (Herrerasaurus, therizinosauroids, dromaeosaurids, and birds). Saurischia includes the theropods (exclusively bipedal and with a wide variety of diets) and sauropodomorphs (long-necked herbivores which include advanced, quadrupedal groups).", "By contrast, ornithischians\u2014\"bird-hipped\", from the Greek ornitheios (\u1f40\u03c1\u03bd\u03af\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2) meaning \"of a bird\" and ischion (\u1f30\u03c3\u03c7\u03af\u03bf\u03bd) meaning \"hip joint\"\u2014had a pelvis that superficially resembled a birds pelvis: the pubic bone was oriented caudally (rear-pointing). Unlike birds, the ornithischian pubis also usually had an additional forward-pointing process. Ornithischia includes a variety of species that were primarily herbivores. Despite the terms \"bird hip\" and \"lizard hip\", birds are not part of Ornithischia, but rather Saurischia\u2014birds evolved from earlier dinosaurs with \"lizard hips\"."]}, "Cultural depictions": ["By human standards, dinosaurs were creatures of fantastic appearance and often enormous size. As such, they have captured the popular imagination and become an enduring part of human culture. The entry of the word \"dinosaur\" into the common [[vernacular]] reflects the animals cultural importance: in English, \"dinosaur\" is commonly used to describe anything that is impractically large, obsolete, or bound for extinction.", "Public enthusiasm for dinosaurs first developed in [[Victorian era|Victorian]] England, where in 1854, three decades after the first scientific descriptions of dinosaur remains, a menagerie of lifelike [[Crystal Palace dinosaurs|dinosaur sculptures]] was unveiled in [[London]]s [[Crystal Palace Park]]. The Crystal Palace dinosaurs proved so popular that a strong market in smaller replicas soon developed. In subsequent decades, dinosaur exhibits opened at parks and [[Natural history museum|museums]] around the world, ensuring that successive generations would be introduced to the animals in an immersive and exciting way. The enduring popularity of dinosaurs, in its turn, has resulted in significant public funding for dinosaur science, and has frequently spurred new discoveries. In the United States, for example, the competition between museums for public attention led directly to the Bone Wars of the 1880s and 1890s, during which a pair of feuding paleontologists made enormous scientific contributions.", "The popular preoccupation with dinosaurs has ensured their appearance in [[literature]], [[film]], and other [[Media (communication)|media]]. Beginning in 1852 with a passing mention in [[Charles Dickens]] [[Bleak House]], dinosaurs have been featured in large numbers of [[fiction]]al works. [[Jules Verne]]s 1864 novel [[Journey to the Center of the Earth]], [[Arthur Conan Doyle|Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]s 1912 book [[The Lost World (Doyle novel)|The Lost World]], the 1914 animated film [[Gertie the Dinosaur]] (featuring the first animated dinosaur), the iconic 1933 [[motion picture|film]] [[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]], the 1954 [[Godzilla (1954 film)|Godzilla]] and its many sequels, the best-selling 1990 novel [[Jurassic Park (novel)|Jurassic Park]] by [[Michael Crichton]] and its 1993 [[Jurassic Park (film)|film adaptation]] are just a few notable examples of dinosaur appearances in fiction. Authors of general-interest [[non-fiction]] works about dinosaurs, including some prominent paleontologists, who have often sought to use the animals as a way to educate readers about science in general. Dinosaurs are ubiquitous in [[advertising]]; numerous [[Company (law)|companies]] have referenced dinosaurs in printed or televised advertisements, either in order to sell their own products or in order to characterize their rivals as slow-moving, dim-witted, or obsolete."], "Definition": {"Distinguishing anatomical features": ["While recent discoveries have made it more difficult to present a universally agreed-upon list of their distinguishing features, nearly all dinosaurs discovered so far share certain modifications to the ancestral archosaurian skeleton, or are clearly descendants of older dinosaurs showing these modifications. Although some later groups of dinosaurs featured further modified versions of these traits, they are considered typical for Dinosauria; the earliest dinosaurs had them and passed them on to their descendants. Such modifications, originating in the most recent common ancestor of a certain taxonomic group, are called the [[Synapomorphy and apomorphy|synapomorphies]] of such a group.", "* In the [[skull]], a supratemporal fossa (excavation) is present in front of the [[Skull#Structure|supratemporal fenestra]], the main opening in the rear skull roof", "* [[Epipophyses]], obliquely backward-pointing processes on the rear top corners of the anterior (front) neck [[vertebra]]e behind the [[Atlas (anatomy)|atlas]] and [[Axis (anatomy)|axis]], the first two neck vertebrae", "* Apex of a deltopectoral crest (a projection on which the [[clavipectoral triangle|deltopectoral]] muscles attach) located at or more than 30% down the length of the [[humerus]] (upper arm bone)", "* [[Radius (bone)|Radius]], a lower arm bone, shorter than 80% of humerus length", "* [[Fourth trochanter]] (projection where the [[caudofemoralis]] muscle attaches on the inner rear shaft) on the [[femur]] (thigh bone) is a sharp flange", "* Fourth trochanter asymmetrical, with distal, lower, margin forming a steeper angle to the shaft", "* On the [[Talus bone|astragalus]] and [[Calcaneus|calcaneum]], upper ankle bones, the proximal articular facet, the top connecting surface, for the [[fibula]] occupies less than 30% of the transverse width of the element", "* Exoccipitals (bones at the back of the skull) do not meet along the midline on the floor of the endocranial cavity, the inner space of the braincase", "* In the pelvis, the proximal articular surfaces of the [[ischium]] with the [[ilium (bone)|ilium]] and the [[Pubis (bone)|pubis]] are separated by a large concave surface (on the upper side of the ischium a part of the open hip joint is located between the contacts with the pubic bone and the ilium)", "* [[Cnemial crest]] on the [[tibia]] (protruding part of the top surface of the shinbone) arcs anterolaterally (curves to the front and the outer side)", "* Distinct proximodistally oriented (vertical) ridge present on the posterior face of the distal end of the tibia (the rear surface of the lower end of the shinbone)", "* Concave articular surface for the fibula of the calcaneum (the top surface of the calcaneum, where it touches the fibula, has a hollow profile)", "Nesbitt found a number of further potential synapomorphies and discounted a number of synapomorphies previously suggested. Some of these are also present in [[Silesauridae|silesaurids]], which Nesbitt recovered as a sister group to Dinosauria, including a large anterior trochanter, metatarsals II and IV of subequal length, reduced contact between ischium and pubis, the presence of a cnemial crest on the tibia and of an ascending process on the astragalus, and many others.", "A variety of other skeletal features are shared by dinosaurs. However, because they are either common to other groups of archosaurs or were not present in all early dinosaurs, these features are not considered to be synapomorphies. For example, as [[diapsid]]s, dinosaurs ancestrally had two pairs of [[Infratemporal fenestra]]e (openings in the skull behind the eyes), and as members of the diapsid group Archosauria, had additional openings in the [[antorbital fenestra|snout]] and lower jaw. Additionally, several characteristics once thought to be synapomorphies are now known to have appeared before dinosaurs, or were absent in the earliest dinosaurs and independently evolved by different dinosaur groups. These include an elongated [[scapula]], or shoulder blade; a [[sacrum]] composed of three or more fused vertebrae (three are found in some other archosaurs, but only two are found in [[Herrerasaurus]]); and a perforate [[acetabulum]], or hip socket, with a hole at the center of its inside surface (closed in [[Saturnalia tupiniquim]], for example). Another difficulty of determining distinctly dinosaurian features is that early dinosaurs and other archosaurs from the [[Late Triassic]] epoch are often poorly known and were similar in many ways; these animals have sometimes been misidentified in the literature.", "Dinosaurs stand with their hind limbs erect in a manner similar to [[Evolution of mammals#Erect limbs|most modern mammals]], but distinct from most other reptiles, whose limbs sprawl out to either side. This posture is due to the development of a laterally facing recess in the pelvis (usually an open socket) and a corresponding inwardly facing distinct head on the femur. Their erect posture enabled early dinosaurs to breathe easily while moving, which likely permitted stamina and activity levels that [[Carriers constraint|surpassed those of \"sprawling\" reptiles]]. Erect limbs probably also helped support the [[evolution]] of large size by reducing bending stresses on limbs. Some non-dinosaurian archosaurs, including [[rauisuchia]]ns, also had erect limbs but achieved this by a \"pillar-erect\" configuration of the hip joint, where instead of having a projection from the femur insert on a socket on the hip, the [[ilium (bone)|upper pelvic bone]] was rotated to form an overhanging shelf."], "General description": ["Using one of the above definitions, dinosaurs can be generally described as [[archosaur]]s with [[Terrestrial locomotion#Posture|hind limbs held erect beneath the body]]. Other prehistoric animals, including [[pterosaur]]s, [[mosasaur]]s, [[ichthyosaur]]s, [[Plesiosauria|plesiosaurs]], and [[Dimetrodon]], while often popularly conceived of as dinosaurs, are not taxonomically classified as dinosaurs. Pterosaurs are distantly related to dinosaurs, being members of the clade [[Avemetatarsalia|Ornithodira]]. The other groups mentioned are, like dinosaurs and pterosaurs, members of [[Sauropsida]] (the reptile and bird clade), except Dimetrodon (which is a [[synapsid]]). None of them had the erect hind limb posture characteristic of true dinosaurs. ", "Dinosaurs were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates of the [[Mesozoic]] [[Era]], especially the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Other groups of animals were restricted in size and niches; [[mammal]]s, for example, rarely exceeded the size of a domestic cat, and were generally rodent-sized carnivores of small prey. They have always been recognized as an extremely varied group of animals; over 900 non-avian dinosaur genera have been identified with certainty as of 2018, and the total number of genera preserved in the fossil record has been estimated at around 1850, nearly 75% of which remain to be discovered, and 1124 species by 2016. A 1995 study predicted that about 3,400 dinosaur genera ever existed, including many that would not have been preserved in the fossil record.", "In 2016, the estimated number of dinosaur species that existed in the Mesozoic was 1,543\u20132,468. In 2021, the number of modern-day birds (avian dinosaurs) was estimated to be at 10,806 species. Some are herbivorous, others carnivorous, including seed-eaters, fish-eaters, insectivores, and omnivores. While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal (as are all modern birds), some prehistoric species were quadrupeds, and others, such as [[Anchisaurus]] and Iguanodon, could walk just as easily on two or four legs. Cranial modifications like horns and crests are common dinosaurian traits, and some extinct species had bony armor. Although known for large size, many Mesozoic dinosaurs were human-sized or smaller, and modern birds are generally small in size. Dinosaurs today inhabit every continent, and fossils show that they had achieved global distribution by at least the [[Early Jurassic]] epoch. Modern birds inhabit most available habitats, from terrestrial to marine, and there is evidence that some non-avian dinosaurs (such as [[Microraptor]]) could fly or at least glide, and others, such as [[spinosauridae|spinosaurids]], had [[list of semiaquatic tetrapods|semiaquatic]] habits."], "first_par": ["Under [[phylogenetic nomenclature]], dinosaurs are usually defined as the group consisting of the [[most recent common ancestor]] (MRCA) of [[Triceratops]] and [[Bird#Diversification of modern birds|modern birds]] (Neornithes), and all its descendants. It has also been suggested that Dinosauria be defined with respect to the MRCA of [[Megalosaurus]] and [[Iguanodon]], because these were two of the three genera cited by [[Richard Owen]] when he recognized the Dinosauria. Both definitions result in the same set of animals being defined as dinosaurs: \"Dinosauria = [[Ornithischia]] + [[Saurischia]]\". This definition includes major groups such as [[ankylosauria]]ns (armored herbivorous quadrupeds), [[stegosauria]]ns (plated herbivorous quadrupeds), [[ceratopsia]]ns (bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores with [[neck frill]]s), [[pachycephalosauria]]ns (bipedal herbivores with thick skulls), [[Ornithopoda|ornithopod]]s (bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores including \"[[Hadrosauridae|duck-bills]]\"), [[Theropoda|theropod]]s (mostly bipedal carnivores and birds), and [[sauropodomorpha|sauropodomorphs]] (mostly large herbivorous quadrupeds with long necks and tails).", "Birds are now recognized as being the sole surviving lineage of theropod dinosaurs. In traditional [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]], birds were considered a separate [[class (biology)|class]] that had evolved from dinosaurs, a distinct [[superorder]]. However, a majority of contemporary paleontologists concerned with dinosaurs reject the traditional style of classification in favor of [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] taxonomy; this approach requires that, for a group to be natural, all descendants of members of the group must be included in the group as well. Birds are thus considered to be dinosaurs and dinosaurs are, therefore, not extinct. Birds are classified as belonging to the subgroup [[Maniraptora]], which are [[Coelurosauria|coelurosaurs]], which are theropods, which are saurischians, which are dinosaurs.", "Research by Matthew G. Baron, [[David B. Norman]], and Paul M. Barrett in 2017 suggested a radical revision of dinosaurian systematics. Phylogenetic analysis by Baron et al. recovered the Ornithischia as being closer to the Theropoda than the Sauropodomorpha, as opposed to the traditional union of theropods with sauropodomorphs. They resurrected the clade [[Ornithoscelida]] to refer to the group containing Ornithischia and Theropoda. Dinosauria itself was re-defined as the last common ancestor of Triceratops horridus, [[house sparrow|Passer domesticus]] and [[Diplodocus|Diplodocus carnegii]], and all of its descendants, to ensure that sauropods and kin remain included as dinosaurs."]}, "Evolutionary history": {"Evolution and paleobiogeography": ["Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic followed changes in vegetation and the location of continents. In the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic, the continents were connected as the single landmass [[Pangaea]], and there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of [[coelophysoidea|coelophysoid]] carnivores and early sauropodomorph herbivores. [[Gymnosperm]] plants (particularly [[Pinophyta|conifer]]s), a potential food source, [[Evolutionary radiation|radiated]] in the Late Triassic. Early sauropodomorphs did not have sophisticated mechanisms for processing food in the mouth, and so must have employed other means of breaking down food farther along the digestive tract. The general homogeneity of dinosaurian faunas continued into the Middle and Late Jurassic, where most localities had predators consisting of [[ceratosauria]]ns, [[Megalosauroidea|megalosauroids]], and [[Allosauroidea|allosauroids]], and herbivores consisting of stegosaurian ornithischians and large sauropods. Examples of this include the [[Morrison Formation]] of [[North America]] and [[Tendaguru Formation|Tendaguru Beds]] of Tanzania. Dinosaurs in China show some differences, with specialized [[Metriacanthosauridae|metriacanthosaurid]] theropods and unusual, long-necked sauropods like [[Mamenchisaurus]]. Ankylosaurians and ornithopods were also becoming more common, but primitive sauropodomorphs had become extinct. Conifers and [[pteridophyte]]s were the most common plants. Sauropods, like earlier sauropodomorphs, were not oral processors, but ornithischians were evolving various means of dealing with food in the mouth, including potential [[cheek]]-like organs to keep food in the mouth, and jaw motions to grind food. Another notable evolutionary event of the Jurassic was the appearance of true birds, descended from maniraptoran coelurosaurians.", "By the [[Early Cretaceous]] and the ongoing breakup of Pangaea, dinosaurs were becoming strongly differentiated by landmass. The earliest part of this time saw the spread of ankylosaurians, [[iguanodontia]]ns, and [[brachiosauridae|brachiosaurids]] through [[Europe]], North America, and northern [[Africa]]. These were later supplemented or replaced in Africa by large spinosaurid and [[carcharodontosauridae|carcharodontosaurid]] theropods, and [[rebbachisauridae|rebbachisaurid]] and [[titanosauria]]n sauropods, also found in [[South America]]. In [[Asia]], maniraptoran coelurosaurians like [[dromaeosauridae|dromaeosaurids]], [[troodontidae|troodontids]], and [[oviraptorosauria]]ns became the common theropods, and [[ankylosauridae|ankylosaurids]] and early ceratopsians like Psittacosaurus became important herbivores. Meanwhile, [[Australia]] was home to a fauna of basal ankylosaurians, [[hypsilophodont]]s, and iguanodontians. The stegosaurians appear to have gone extinct at some point in the late Early Cretaceous or early [[Late Cretaceous]]. A major change in the Early Cretaceous, which would be amplified in the Late Cretaceous, was the evolution of [[angiosperm|flowering plants]]. At the same time, several groups of dinosaurian herbivores evolved more sophisticated ways to orally process food. Ceratopsians developed a method of slicing with teeth stacked on each other in batteries, and iguanodontians refined a method of grinding with [[Dinosaur tooth#Dental batteries|dental batteries]], taken to its extreme in hadrosaurids. Some sauropods also evolved tooth batteries, best exemplified by the rebbachisaurid [[Nigersaurus]].", "There were three general dinosaur faunas in the Late Cretaceous. In the northern continents of North America and Asia, the major theropods were [[tyrannosauridae|tyrannosaurids]] and various types of smaller maniraptoran theropods, with a predominantly ornithischian herbivore assemblage of hadrosaurids, ceratopsians, ankylosaurids, and pachycephalosaurians. In the southern continents that had made up the now-splitting supercontinent [[Gondwana]], [[abelisauridae|abelisaurids]] were the common theropods, and titanosaurian sauropods the common herbivores. Finally, in Europe, dromaeosaurids, [[rhabdodontidae|rhabdodontid]] iguanodontians, [[nodosauridae|nodosaurid]] ankylosaurians, and titanosaurian sauropods were prevalent. Flowering plants were greatly radiating, with the first grasses appearing by the end of the Cretaceous. Grinding hadrosaurids and shearing ceratopsians became very diverse across North America and Asia. Theropods were also radiating as herbivores or [[omnivore]]s, with [[Therizinosauria|therizinosaur]]ians and [[ornithomimosauria]]ns becoming common.", "The Cretaceous\u2013Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately 66 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous, caused the extinction of all dinosaur groups except for the neornithine birds. Some other diapsid groups, such as [[crocodilia]]ns, [[sebecosuchia]]ns, turtles, [[lizard]]s, [[snake]]s, [[Rhynchocephalia|sphenodontia]]ns, and [[choristodera]]ns, also survived the event.", "The surviving lineages of neornithine birds, including the ancestors of modern [[ratite]]s, [[Fowl|ducks and chickens]], and a variety of [[Charadriiformes|waterbirds]], diversified rapidly at the beginning of the [[Paleogene]] period, entering [[ecological niche]]s left vacant by the extinction of Mesozoic dinosaur groups such as the arboreal [[enantiornithine]]s, aquatic [[hesperornithine]]s, and even the larger terrestrial theropods (in the form of [[Gastornis]], [[Eogruidae|eogruiids]], [[bathornithids]], ratites, [[Geranoididae|geranoidids]], [[mihirung]]s, and \"[[terror bird]]s\"). It is often stated that mammals out-competed the neornithines for dominance of most terrestrial niches but many of these groups co-existed with rich mammalian faunas for most of the [[Cenozoic]] Era. Terror birds and bathornithids occupied carnivorous guilds alongside predatory mammals, and ratites are still fairly successful as mid-sized herbivores; eogruiids similarly lasted from the [[Eocene]] to [[Pliocene]], only becoming extinct very recently after over 20 million years of co-existence with many mammal groups."], "Origins and early evolution": ["Dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors during the Middle to Late Triassic epochs, roughly 20 million years after the devastating [[Permian\u2013Triassic extinction event]] wiped out an estimated 96% of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species approximately 252 million years ago. [[Radiometric dating]] of the [[Ischigualasto Formation]] of Argentina where the early dinosaur [[genus]] [[Eoraptor]] was found date it as 231.4 million years old. Eoraptor is thought to resemble the [[Common descent|common ancestor]] of all dinosaurs; if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal [[predation|predators]]. The discovery of primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as [[Lagosuchus]] and [[Lagerpeton]] in [[Argentina|Argentina]] in the [[Carnian]] epoch of the Triassic, around 233 million years ago, supports this view; analysis of recovered fossils suggests that these animals were indeed small, bipedal predators. Dinosaurs may have appeared as early as the [[Anisian]] epoch of the Triassic, 245 million years ago, as evidenced by remains of the genus [[Nyasasaurus]] from that period. However, its known fossils are too fragmentary to tell if it was a dinosaur or only a close relative. Paleontologist Max C. Langer et al. (2018) determined that [[Staurikosaurus]] from the [[Santa Maria Formation]] dates to 233.23 million years ago, making it older in geologic age than Eoraptor.", "When dinosaurs appeared, they were not the dominant terrestrial animals. The terrestrial habitats were occupied by various types of [[Archosauromorpha|archosauromorphs]] and [[therapsid]]s, like [[cynodont]]s and [[rhynchosaur]]s. Their main competitors were the [[pseudosuchians]], such as [[aetosaur]]s, [[ornithosuchidae|ornithosuchids]] and rauisuchians, which were more successful than the dinosaurs. Most of these other animals became extinct in the Triassic, in one of two events. First, at about 215 million years ago, a variety of [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] archosauromorphs, including the [[Protorosauria|protorosaurs]], became extinct. This was followed by the Triassic\u2013Jurassic extinction event (about 201 million years ago), that saw the end of most of the other groups of early archosaurs, like aetosaurs, ornithosuchids, [[phytosaur]]s, and rauisuchians. Rhynchosaurs and [[dicynodont]]s survived (at least in some areas) at least as late as early\u200a\u2013mid [[Norian]] and late Norian or earliest [[Rhaetian]] [[Stage (stratigraphy)|stage]]s, respectively, and the exact date of their [[extinction]] is uncertain. These losses left behind a land fauna of [[crocodylomorpha|crocodylomorphs]], dinosaurs, mammals, pterosaurians, and [[turtle]]s. The first few lines of early dinosaurs [[Adaptive radiation|diversified]] through the [[Carnian]] and Norian stages of the Triassic, possibly by occupying the niches of the groups that became extinct. Also notably, there was a heightened rate of extinction during the [[Carnian Pluvial Event]]."]}, "Extinction of major groups": {"Deccan Traps": ["At the time of the K-Pg extinction, the [[Deccan Traps]] flood basalts of India were actively erupting. The eruptions can be separated into three phases around the K-Pg boundary, two prior to the boundary and one after. The second phase, which occurred very close to the boundary, would have extruded 70 to 80% of the volume of these eruptions in intermittent pulses that occurred around 100,000 years apart. [[Greenhouse gases]] such as [[carbon dioxide]] and [[sulphur dioxide]] would have been released by this volcanic activity, resulting in [[climate change]] through temperature perturbations of roughly but possibly as high as. Like the Chicxulub impact, the eruptions may also have released sulphate aerosols, which would have caused acid rain and global cooling. However, due to large error margins in the dating of the eruptions, the role of the Deccan Traps in the K-Pg extinction remains unclear.", "Before 2000, arguments that the Deccan Traps eruptions\u2014as opposed to the Chicxulub impact\u2014caused the extinction were usually linked to the view that the extinction was gradual. Prior to the discovery of the Chicxulub crater, the Deccan Traps were used to explain the global iridium layer; even after the craters discovery, the impact was still thought to only have had a regional, not global, effect on the extinction event. In response, Luis Alvarez rejected volcanic activity as an explanation for the iridium layer and the extinction as a whole. Since then, however, most researchers have adopted a more moderate position, which identifies the Chicxulub impact as the primary progenitor of the extinction while also recognizing that the Deccan Traps may also have played a role. Walter Alvarez himself has acknowledged that the Deccan Traps and other ecological factors may have contributed to the extinctions in addition to the Chicxulub impact. Some estimates have placed the start of the second phase in the Deccan Traps eruptions within 50,000 years after the Chicxulub impact. Combined with mathematical modelling of the [[seismic wave]]s that would have been generated by the impact, this has led to the suggestion that the Chicxulub impact may have triggered these eruptions by increasing the permeability of the [[mantle plume]] underlying the Deccan Traps.", "Whether the Deccan Traps were a major cause of the extinction, on par with the Chicxulub impact, remains uncertain. Proponents consider the climatic impact of the sulphur dioxide released to have been on par with the Chicxulub impact, and also note the role of flood basalt volcanism in other mass extinctions like the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]]. They consider the Chicxulub impact to have worsened the ongoing climate change caused by the eruptions. Meanwhile, detractors point out the sudden nature of the extinction and that other pulses in Deccan Traps activity of comparable magnitude did not appear to have caused extinctions. They also contend that the causes of different mass extinctions should be assessed separately. In 2020, Alfio Chiarenza and colleagues suggested that the Deccan Traps may even have had the opposite effect: they suggested that the long-term warming caused by its carbon dioxide emissions may have dampened the impact winter from the Chicxulub impact."], "Impact event": ["The [[Alvarez hypothesis|bolide impact hypothesis]], first brought to wide attention in 1980 by [[Walter Alvarez]], [[Luis Walter Alvarez|Luis Alvarez]], and colleagues, attributes the K-Pg extinction event to a [[bolide]] (extraterrestrial projectile) impact. Alvarez and colleagues proposed that a sudden increase in [[iridium]] levels, recorded around the world in rock deposits at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, was direct evidence of the impact. [[Shocked quartz]], indicative of a strong shockwave emanating from an impact, was also found worldwide. The actual impact site remained elusive until a [[Chicxulub crater|crater]] measuring wide was discovered in the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula of southeastern [[Mexico]], and was publicized in a 1991 paper by [[Alan R. Hildebrand|Alan Hildebrand]] and colleagues. Now, the bulk of the evidence suggests that a bolide wide impacted the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula 66 million years ago, forming this crater and creating a \"kill mechanism\" that triggered the extinction event.", "Within hours, the Chicxulub impact would have created immediate effects such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and a global firestorm that likely killed unsheltered animals and started wildfires. However, it would also have had longer-term consequences for the environment. Within days, [[sulphate]] [[aerosol]]s released from rocks at the impact site would have contributed to [[acid rain]] and [[ocean acidification]]. [[Soot]] aerosols are thought to have spread around the world over the ensuing months and years; they would have cooled the surface of the Earth by reflecting [[thermal radiation]], and greatly slowed [[photosynthesis]] by blocking out sunlight, thus creating an [[impact winter]]. (This role was ascribed to sulphate aerosols until experiments demonstrated otherwise.) The cessation of photosynthesis would have led to the collapse of [[food web]]s depending on leafy plants, which included all dinosaurs save for grain-eating birds."], "Possible Paleocene survivors": ["Non-avian dinosaur remains have occasionally been found above the K-Pg boundary. In 2000, [[Spencer G. Lucas|Spencer Lucas]] and colleagues reported the discovery of a single hadrosaur right femur in the [[San Juan Basin]] of [[New Mexico]], and described it as evidence of [[Paleocene dinosaurs]]. The rock unit in which the bone was discovered has been dated to the early [[Paleocene]] epoch, approximately 64.8 million years ago. If the bone was not [[deposition (geology)|re-deposited]] by weathering action, it would provide evidence that some dinosaur populations may have survived at least half a million years into the Cenozoic. Other evidence includes the presence of dinosaur remains in the Hell Creek Formation up to above the Cretaceous\u2013Paleogene boundary, representing years of elapsed time. This has been used to support the view that the K-Pg extinction was gradual. However, these supposed Paleocene dinosaurs are considered by many other researchers to be [[reworked fossil|reworked]], that is, washed out of their original locations and then re-buried in younger sediments. The age estimates have also been considered unreliable."], "Pre-extinction diversity": ["Just before the K-Pg extinction event, the number of non-avian dinosaur species that existed globally has been estimated at between 628 and 1078. It remains uncertain whether the diversity of dinosaurs was in gradual decline before the K-Pg extinction event, or whether dinosaurs were actually thriving prior to the extinction. Rock formations from the [[Maastrichtian]] epoch, which directly preceded the extinction, have been found to have lower diversity than the preceding [[Campanian]] epoch, which led to the prevailing view of a long-term decline in diversity. However, these comparisons did not account either for varying preservation potential between rock units or for different extents of exploration and excavation. In 1984, [[Dale Russell]] carried out an analysis to account for these biases, and found no evidence of a decline; another analysis by David Fastovsky and colleagues in 2004 even showed that dinosaur diversity continually increased until the extinction, but this analysis has been rebutted. Since then, different approaches based on statistics and mathematical models have variously supported either a sudden extinction or a gradual decline. End-Cretaceous trends in diversity may have varied between dinosaur lineages: it has been suggested that sauropods were not in decline, while ornithischians and theropods were in decline."], "first_par": ["All non-avian dinosaurs and most lineages of birds became extinct in a [[extinction event|mass extinction event]], called the [[Cretaceous\u2013Paleogene extinction event|Cretaceous\u2013Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event]], at the end of the Cretaceous period. Above the [[Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary]], which has been dated to 66.038 \u00b1 0.025 million years ago, fossils of non-avian dinosaurs disappear abruptly; the absence of dinosaur fossils was historically used to assign rocks to the ensuing [[Cenozoic]]. The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s, leading to the development of two mechanisms that are thought to have played major roles: an extraterrestrial [[impact event]] in the [[Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula]], along with [[flood basalt]] volcanism in India. However, the specific mechanisms of the extinction event and the extent of its effects on dinosaurs are still areas of ongoing research. Alongside dinosaurs, many other groups of animals became extinct: pterosaurs, marine reptiles such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, several groups of mammals, [[ammonoidea|ammonites]] ([[nautilus]]-like [[Mollusca|mollusks]]), [[rudist]]s ([[reef]]-building [[bivalvia|bivalves]]), and various groups of marine plankton. In all, approximately 47% of genera and 76% of species on Earth became extinct during the K-Pg extinction event. The relatively large size of most dinosaurs and the low diversity of small-bodied dinosaur species at the end of the Cretaceous may have contributed to their extinction; the extinction of the bird lineages that did not survive may also have been caused by a dependence on forest habitats or a lack of adaptations to [[seed predation|eating seeds]] for survival."]}, "History of study": {"\"Dinosaur renaissance\" and beyond": ["The field of dinosaur research has enjoyed a surge in activity that began in the 1970s and is ongoing. This was triggered, in part, by [[John Ostrom]]s discovery and 1969 description of [[Deinonychus]], an active predator that may have been warm-blooded, in marked contrast to the then-prevailing image of dinosaurs as sluggish and cold-blooded. [[Vertebrate paleontology]] has become a global [[science]]. Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexploited regions, including India, South America, Madagascar, Antarctica, and most significantly China (the well-preserved feathered dinosaurs in China have further consolidated the link between dinosaurs and their living descendants, modern birds). The widespread application of [[cladistics]], which rigorously analyzes the relationships between biological organisms, has also proved tremendously useful in classifying dinosaurs. Cladistic analysis, among other modern techniques, helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary fossil record."], "Discoveries in North America": ["In 1858, [[William Parker Foulke]] discovered the first known American dinosaur, in [[marl]] pits in the small town of [[Haddonfield, New Jersey]]. (Although fossils had been found before, their nature had not been correctly discerned.) The creature was named [[Hadrosaurus|Hadrosaurus foulkii]]. It was an extremely important find: Hadrosaurus was one of the first nearly complete dinosaur skeletons found ([[Iguanodon#Gideon Mantell, Sir Richard Owen, and the discovery of dinosaurs|the first]] was in 1834, in [[Maidstone|Maidstone, England]]), and it was clearly a bipedal creature. This was a revolutionary discovery as, until that point, most scientists had believed dinosaurs walked on four feet, like other lizards. Foulkes discoveries sparked a wave of interests in dinosaurs in the United States, known as dinosaur mania.", "Dinosaur mania was exemplified by the fierce rivalry between [[Edward Drinker Cope]] and [[Othniel Charles Marsh]], both of whom raced to be the first to find new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the [[Bone Wars]]. This fight between the two scientists lasted for over 30 years, ending in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune on the dinosaur hunt. Unfortunately, many valuable dinosaur specimens were damaged or destroyed due to the pairs rough methods: for example, their diggers often used [[dynamite]] to unearth bones. Modern paleontologists would find such methods crude and unacceptable, since blasting easily destroys fossil and stratigraphic evidence. Despite their unrefined methods, the contributions of Cope and Marsh to paleontology were vast: Marsh unearthed 86 new species of dinosaur and Cope discovered 56, a total of 142 new species. Copes collection is now at the American Museum of Natural History, while Marshs is at the [[Peabody Museum of Natural History]] at [[Yale University]]."], "Early dinosaur research": ["Scholarly descriptions of what would now be recognized as dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th century in England. Part of a bone, now known to have been the femur of a Megalosaurus, was recovered from a limestone quarry at [[Cornwell, Oxfordshire|Cornwell]] near [[Chipping Norton]], Oxfordshire, in 1676. The fragment was sent to [[Robert Plot]], Professor of Chemistry at the [[University of Oxford]] and first curator of the [[Ashmolean Museum]], who published a description in his The Natural History of Oxford-shire (1677). He correctly identified the bone as the lower extremity of the femur of a large animal, and recognized that it was too large to belong to any known species. He, therefore, concluded it to be the femur of a huge human, perhaps a [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] or another type of giant featured in legends. [[Edward Lhuyd]], a friend of [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]], published Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia (1699), the first scientific treatment of what would now be recognized as a dinosaur when he described and named a sauropod [[tooth]], \"[[Rutellum|Rutellum impicatum]]\", that had been found in Caswell, near [[Witney]], Oxfordshire.", "Between 1815 and 1824, the Rev [[William Buckland]], the first Reader of Geology at the University of Oxford, collected more fossilized bones of Megalosaurus and became the first person to describe a non-avian dinosaur in a [[scientific journal]]. The second non-avian dinosaur genus to be identified, Iguanodon, was discovered in 1822 by [[Mary Ann Mantell]] \u2013 the wife of English geologist [[Gideon Mantell]]. Gideon Mantell recognized similarities between his fossils and the bones of modern [[iguana]]s. He published his findings in 1825.", "The study of these \"great fossil lizards\" soon became of great interest to European and American scientists, and in 1841 the English paleontologist Sir Richard Owen coined the term \"dinosaur\", using it to refer to the \"distinct tribe or sub-order of Saurian Reptiles\" that were then being recognized in England and around the world. The term is derived. Though the taxonomic name has often been interpreted as a reference to dinosaurs teeth, claws, and other fearsome characteristics, Owen intended it to also evoke their size and majesty. Owen recognized that the remains that had been found so far, Iguanodon, Megalosaurus and [[Hylaeosaurus]], shared a number of distinctive features, and so decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group. With the backing of [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]], the husband of [[Queen Victoria]], Owen established the [[Natural History Museum, London]], to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits."], "Pre-scientific history": ["Dinosaur fossils have been known for millennia, although their true nature was not recognized. The Chinese considered them to be [[Chinese dragon|dragon]] bones and documented them as such. For example, [[Chronicles of Huayang|Huayang Guo Zhi]] , a [[gazetteer]] compiled by [[Chang Qu]] during the [[Jin dynasty (266\u2013420)|Western Jin Dynasty]] (265\u2013316), reported the discovery of dragon bones at Wucheng in [[Sichuan]] Province. Villagers in central China have long unearthed fossilized \"dragon bones\" for use in [[Traditional Chinese medicine|traditional medicines]]. In Europe, dinosaur fossils were generally believed to be the remains of [[giant]]s and other [[Bible|biblical]] creatures."], "Soft tissue and DNA": ["One of the best examples of soft-tissue impressions in a fossil dinosaur was discovered in the [[Pietraroja Formation|Pietraroia Plattenkalk]] in southern [[Italy]]. The discovery was reported in 1998, and described the specimen of a small, juvenile coelurosaur, [[Scipionyx|Scipionyx samniticus]]. The fossil includes portions of the intestines, colon, liver, muscles, and windpipe of this dinosaur.", "In the March 2005 issue of [[Science (journal)|Science]], the paleontologist [[Mary Higby Schweitzer]] and her team announced the discovery of flexible material resembling actual soft tissue inside a 68-million-year-old Tyrannosaurus rex leg bone from the [[Hell Creek Formation]] in [[Montana]]. After recovery, the tissue was rehydrated by the science team. When the fossilized bone was treated over several weeks to remove mineral content from the fossilized bone-marrow cavity (a process called demineralization), Schweitzer found evidence of intact structures such as [[blood vessel]]s, [[Osteon|bone matrix]], and connective tissue (bone fibers). Scrutiny under the microscope further revealed that the putative dinosaur soft tissue had retained fine structures (microstructures) even at the cellular level. The exact nature and composition of this material, and the implications of Schweitzers discovery, are not yet clear.", "In 2009, a team including Schweitzer announced that, using even more careful methodology, they had duplicated their results by finding similar soft tissue in a duck-billed dinosaur, [[Brachylophosaurus|Brachylophosaurus canadensis]], found in the [[Judith River Formation]] of Montana. This included even more detailed tissue, down to preserved bone cells that seem to have visible remnants of nuclei and what seem to be red blood cells. Among other materials found in the bone was [[collagen]], as in the Tyrannosaurus bone. The type of collagen an animal has in its bones varies according to its [[DNA]] and, in both cases, this collagen was of the same type found in modern chickens and ostriches.", "The extraction of ancient DNA from dinosaur fossils has been reported on two separate occasions; upon further inspection and [[peer review]], however, neither of these reports could be confirmed. However, a functional [[peptide]] involved in the vision of a theoretical dinosaur has been inferred using analytical phylogenetic reconstruction methods on gene sequences of related modern species such as reptiles and birds. In addition, several [[protein]]s, including [[hemoglobin]], have putatively been detected in dinosaur fossils.", "In 2015, researchers reported finding structures similar to blood cells and collagen fibers, preserved in the bone fossils of six Cretaceous dinosaur specimens, which are approximately 75 million years old."]}, "Origin of birds": {"Behavioral evidence": ["Fossils of the troodonts [[Mei long|Mei]] and [[Sinornithoides]] demonstrate that some dinosaurs slept with their heads tucked under their arms. This behavior, which may have helped to keep the head warm, is also characteristic of modern birds. Several [[Deinonychosauria|deinonychosaur]] and oviraptorosaur specimens have also been found preserved on top of their nests, likely brooding in a bird-like manner. The ratio between egg volume and body mass of adults among these dinosaurs suggest that the eggs were primarily brooded by the male, and that the young were highly precocial, similar to many modern ground-dwelling birds.", "Some dinosaurs are known to have used [[gizzard]] stones like modern birds. These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibers once they enter the stomach. When found in association with fossils, gizzard stones are called gastroliths."], "Feathers": ["Feathers are one of the most recognizable characteristics of modern birds, and a trait that was also shared by several non-avian dinosaurs. Based on the current distribution of fossil evidence, it appears that feathers were an ancestral dinosaurian trait, though one that may have been selectively lost in some species. Direct fossil evidence of feathers or feather-like structures has been discovered in a diverse array of species in many non-avian dinosaur groups, both among saurischians and ornithischians. Simple, branched, feather-like structures are known from [[Heterodontosauridae|heterodontosaurids]], primitive [[neornithischia]]ns, and theropods, and primitive ceratopsians. Evidence for true, vaned feathers similar to the flight feathers of modern birds has been found only in the theropod subgroup Maniraptora, which includes oviraptorosaurs, troodontids, dromaeosaurids, and birds. Feather-like structures known as [[Pterosaur#Pycnofibers|pycnofibre]]s have also been found in pterosaurs, suggesting the possibility that feather-like filaments may have been common in the bird lineage and evolved before the appearance of dinosaurs themselves. Research into the genetics of [[American alligator]]s has also revealed that crocodylian [[scute]]s do possess feather-keratins during embryonic development, but these keratins are not expressed by the animals before hatching.", "[[Archaeopteryx]] was the first fossil found that revealed a potential connection between dinosaurs and birds. It is considered a [[transitional fossil]], in that it displays features of both groups. Brought to light just two years after [[Charles Darwin]]s seminal [[On the Origin of Species]] (1859), its discovery spurred the nascent debate between proponents of [[evolutionary biology]] and [[creationism]]. This early bird is so dinosaur-like that, without a clear impression of feathers in the surrounding rock, at least one specimen was mistaken for the small theropod [[Compsognathus]]. Since the 1990s, a number of additional feathered dinosaurs have been found, providing even stronger evidence of the close relationship between dinosaurs and modern birds. Most of these specimens were unearthed in the [[Lagerst\u00e4tten|lagerst\u00e4tte]] of the Yixian Formation, [[Liaoning]], northeastern China, which was part of an island continent during the Cretaceous. Though feathers have been found in only a few locations, it is possible that non-avian dinosaurs elsewhere in the world were also feathered. The lack of widespread fossil evidence for feathered non-avian dinosaurs may be because delicate features like skin and feathers are seldom preserved by fossilization and thus often absent from the fossil record.", "The description of feathered dinosaurs has not been without controversy; perhaps the most vocal critics have been Alan Feduccia and Theagarten Lingham-Soliar, who have proposed that some purported feather-like fossils are the result of the decomposition of collagenous fiber that underlaid the dinosaurs skin, and that maniraptoran dinosaurs with vaned feathers were not actually dinosaurs, but convergent with dinosaurs. However, their views have for the most part not been accepted by other researchers, to the point that the scientific nature of Feduccias proposals has been questioned."], "Skeleton": ["Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the missing link between birds and dinosaurs. However, the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent another important line of evidence for paleontologists. Areas of the skeleton with important similarities include the neck, pubis, [[wrist]] (semi-lunate [[carpal]]), arm and [[Shoulder girdle|pectoral girdle]], furcula (wishbone), and [[Keel (bird anatomy)|breast bone]]. Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons through cladistic analysis strengthens the case for the link."], "Soft anatomy": ["Large meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds, according to a 2005 investigation led by Patrick M. OConnor. The lungs of theropod dinosaurs (carnivores that walked on two legs and had bird-like feet) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their skeletons, as is the case in birds. \"What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds\", OConnor said. In 2008, scientists described [[Aerosteon|Aerosteon riocoloradensis]], the skeleton of which supplies the strongest evidence to date of a dinosaur with a bird-like breathing system. [[CT scan]]ning of Aerosteons fossil bones revealed evidence for the existence of air sacs within the animals body cavity."], "first_par": ["The possibility that dinosaurs were the ancestors of birds was first suggested in 1868 by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]]. After the work of [[Gerhard Heilmann]] in the early 20th century, the [[Scientific theory|theory]] of birds as dinosaur descendants was abandoned in favor of the idea of them being descendants of generalized [[Thecodontia|thecodonts]], with the key piece of evidence being the supposed lack of [[clavicle]]s in dinosaurs. However, as later discoveries showed, clavicles (or a single fused [[furcula|wishbone]], which derived from separate clavicles) were not actually absent; they had been found as early as 1924 in [[Oviraptor]], but misidentified as an [[interclavicle]]. In the 1970s, Ostrom revived the dinosaur\u2013bird theory, which gained momentum in the coming decades with the advent of cladistic analysis, and a great increase in the discovery of small theropods and early birds. Of particular note have been the fossils of the [[Yixian Formation]], where a variety of theropods and early birds have been found, often with feathers of some type. Birds share over a hundred distinct anatomical features with theropod dinosaurs, which are now generally accepted to have been their closest ancient relatives. They are most closely allied with maniraptoran coelurosaurs. A minority of scientists, most notably [[Alan Feduccia]] and [[Larry Martin]], have proposed other evolutionary paths, including revised versions of Heilmanns basal archosaur proposal, or that maniraptoran theropods are the ancestors of birds but themselves are not dinosaurs, only [[convergent evolution|convergent]] with dinosaurs."]}, "Paleobiology": {"Behavior": ["Many modern birds are highly social, often found living in flocks. There is general agreement that some behaviors that are common in birds, as well as in [[crocodile]]s (closest living relatives of birds), were also common among extinct dinosaur groups. Interpretations of behavior in fossil species are generally based on the pose of skeletons and their [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]], [[computer simulation]]s of their biomechanics, and comparisons with modern animals in similar ecological niches.", "The first potential evidence for [[herd]]ing or [[flocking (behavior)|flocking]] as a widespread behavior common to many dinosaur groups in addition to birds was the 1878 discovery of 31 Iguanodon, ornithischians that were then thought to have perished together in [[Bernissart]], [[Belgium]], after they fell into a deep, flooded [[sinkhole]] and drowned. Other mass-death sites have been discovered subsequently. Those, along with multiple trackways, suggest that gregarious behavior was common in many early dinosaur species. Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that duck-billed (hadrosaurids) may have moved in great herds, like the [[American bison]] or the African [[Springbok]]. Sauropod tracks document that these animals traveled in groups composed of several different species, at least in [[Oxfordshire]], England, although there is no evidence for specific herd structures. Congregating into herds may have evolved for defense, for [[Bird migration|migratory]] purposes, or to provide protection for young. There is evidence that many types of slow-growing dinosaurs, including various theropods, sauropods, ankylosaurians, ornithopods, and ceratopsians, formed aggregations of immature individuals. One example is a site in [[Inner Mongolia]] that has yielded remains of over 20 [[Sinornithomimus]], from one to seven years old. This assemblage is interpreted as a social group that was trapped in mud. The interpretation of dinosaurs as gregarious has also extended to depicting carnivorous theropods as [[pack hunter]]s working together to bring down large prey. However, this lifestyle is uncommon among modern birds, crocodiles, and other reptiles, and the [[taphonomy|taphonomic]] evidence suggesting mammal-like pack hunting in such theropods as Deinonychus and [[Allosaurus]] can also be interpreted as the results of fatal disputes between feeding animals, as is seen in many modern diapsid predators.", "The crests and frills of some dinosaurs, like the [[marginocephalia]]ns, theropods and [[Lambeosaurinae|lambeosaurine]]s, may have been too fragile to be used for active defense, and so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and [[territory (animal)|territorialism]]. Head wounds from bites suggest that theropods, at least, engaged in active aggressive confrontations.", "From a behavioral standpoint, one of the most valuable dinosaur fossils was discovered in the [[Gobi Desert]] in 1971. It included a [[Velociraptor]] attacking a [[Protoceratops]], providing evidence that dinosaurs did indeed attack each other. Additional evidence for attacking live prey is the partially healed tail of an [[Edmontosaurus]], a hadrosaurid dinosaur; the tail is damaged in such a way that shows the animal was bitten by a tyrannosaur but survived. [[Cannibalism (zoology)|Cannibalism]] amongst some species of dinosaurs was confirmed by tooth marks found in [[Madagascar]] in 2003, involving the theropod [[Majungasaurus]].", "Comparisons between the [[sclerotic ring|scleral rings]] of dinosaurs and modern birds and reptiles have been used to infer daily activity patterns of dinosaurs. Although it has been suggested that most dinosaurs were active during the day, these comparisons have shown that small predatory dinosaurs such as dromaeosaurids, [[Juravenator]], and [[Megapnosaurus]] were likely [[nocturnal]]. Large and medium-sized herbivorous and omnivorous dinosaurs such as ceratopsians, sauropodomorphs, hadrosaurids, ornithomimosaurs may have been [[cathemeral]], active during short intervals throughout the day, although the small ornithischian [[Agilisaurus]] was inferred to be [[Diurnality|diurnal]].", "Based on fossil evidence from dinosaurs such as [[Oryctodromeus]], some ornithischian species seem to have led a partially [[fossorial]] (burrowing) lifestyle. Many modern birds are [[arboreal]] (tree climbing), and this was also true of many Mesozoic birds, especially the enantiornithines. While some early bird-like species may have already been arboreal as well (including dromaeosaurids] such as Microraptor) most non-avialan dinosaurs seem to have relied on land-based locomotion. A good understanding of how dinosaurs moved on the ground is key to models of dinosaur behavior; the science of biomechanics, pioneered by [[Robert McNeill Alexander]], has provided significant insight in this area. For example, studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs skeletal structure have investigated how fast dinosaurs could run, whether [[diplodocid]]s could create [[sonic boom]]s via [[whip]]-like tail snapping, and whether sauropods could float."], "Communication": ["Modern birds are known to [[Animal communication|communicate]] using visual and auditory signals, and the wide diversity of visual display structures among fossil dinosaur groups, such as horns, frills, crests, sails, and feathers, suggests that visual communication has always been important in dinosaur biology. Reconstruction of the plumage color of Anchiornis, suggest the importance of color in visual communication in non-avian dinosaurs. The evolution of dinosaur vocalization is less certain. Paleontologist Phil Senter has suggested that non-avian dinosaurs relied mostly on visual displays and possibly non-vocal acoustic sounds like hissing, jaw grinding or clapping, splashing and wing beating (possible in winged maniraptoran dinosaurs). He states they were unlikely to have been capable of vocalizing since their closest relatives, crocodilians and birds, use different means to vocalize, the former via the [[larynx]] and the latter through the unique [[Syrinx (bird anatomy)|syrinx]], suggesting they evolved independently and their common ancestor was mute.", "The earliest remains of a syrinx, which has enough mineral content for fossilization, was found in a specimen of the duck-like [[Vegavis|Vegavis iaai]] dated 69\u200a\u201366 million years ago, and this organ is unlikely to have existed in non-avian dinosaurs. However, in contrast to Senter, other researchers have suggested that dinosaurs could vocalize and that the syrinx-based vocal system of birds evolved from a larynx-based one, rather than the two systems evolving independently. A 2016 study suggests that dinosaurs produced closed mouth vocalizations like cooing, which occur in both crocodilians and birds as well as other reptiles. Such vocalizations evolved independently in extant archosaurs numerous times, following increases in body size. The crests of the [[Lambeosaurini]] and nasal chambers of ankylosaurids have been suggested to have functioned in [[vocal resonance]], though Senter stated that the presence of resonance chambers in some dinosaurs is not necessarily evidence of vocalization as modern snakes have such chambers which intensify their hisses."], "Physiology": ["Because both modern crocodilians and birds have four-chambered hearts (albeit modified in crocodilians), it is likely that this is a trait shared by all archosaurs, including all dinosaurs. While all modern birds have high metabolisms and are [[endotherm]]ic (\"warm-blooded\"), a vigorous debate has been ongoing since the 1960s regarding how far back in the dinosaur lineage this trait extended. Various researchers have supported dinosaurs as being endothermic, [[ectotherm]]ic (\"cold-blooded\"), or somewhere in between. An emerging consensus among researchers is that, while different lineages of dinosaurs would have had different metabolisms, most of them had higher metabolic rates than other reptiles but lower than living birds and mammals, which is termed [[mesotherm]]y by some. Evidence from crocodiles and their extinct relatives suggests that such elevated metabolisms could have developed in the earliest archosaurs, which were the common ancestors of dinosaurs and crocodiles.", "After non-avian dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were ectothermic. This was used to imply that the ancient dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, even though many modern reptiles are fast and light-footed despite relying on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature. The idea of dinosaurs as ectothermic remained a prevalent view until [[Robert T. Bakker]], an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968. Bakker specifically used anatomical and ecological evidence to argue that sauropods, which had hitherto been depicted as sprawling aquatic animals with their tails dragging on the ground, were endotherms that lived vigorous, terrestrial lives. In 1972, Bakker expanded on his arguments based on energy requirements and predator-prey ratios. This was one of the seminal results that led to the Dinosaur Renaissance (see ).", "One of the greatest contributions to the modern understanding of dinosaur physiology has been [[histology|paleohistology]], the study of microscopic tissue structure in dinosaurs. From the 1960s forward, [[Armand de Ricql\u00e8s]] suggested that the presence of fibrolamellar bone\u2014bony tissue with an irregular, fibrous texture and filled with blood vessels\u2014was indicative of consistently fast growth and therefore endothermy. Fibrolamellar bone was common in both dinosaurs and pterosaurs, though not universally present. This has led to a significant body of work in reconstructing [[growth curve (biology)|growth curves]] and modeling the evolution of growth rates across various dinosaur lineages, which has suggested overall that dinosaurs grew faster than living reptiles. Other lines of evidence suggesting endothermy include the presence of feathers and other types of body coverings in many lineages (see ); more consistent ratios of the isotope [[oxygen-18]] in bony tissue compared to ectotherms, particularly as latitude and thus air temperature varied, which suggests stable internal temperatures (although these ratios can be altered during fossilization); and the discovery of [[South Polar region of the Cretaceous#Dinosaurs|polar dinosaurs]], which lived in Australia, Antarctica, and Alaska when these places would have had cool, temperate climates.", "In saurischian dinosaurs, higher metabolisms were supported by the evolution of the avian respiratory system, characterized by an extensive system of [[air sac]]s that extended the lungs and invaded many of the bones in the skeleton, making them hollow. Such respiratory systems, which may have appeared in the earliest saurischians, would have provided them with more oxygen compared to a mammal of similar size, while also having a larger resting [[tidal volume]] and requiring a lower breathing frequency, which would have allowed them to sustain higher activity levels. The rapid airflow would also have been an effective cooling mechanism, which in conjunction with a lower metabolic rate would have prevented large sauropods from overheating. These traits may have enabled sauropods to grow quickly to gigantic sizes. Sauropods may also have benefitted from their size\u2014their small surface area to volume ratio meant that they would have been able to thermoregulate more easily, a phenomenon termed [[gigantothermy]].", "Like other reptiles, dinosaurs are primarily [[uricotelic]], that is, their [[kidney]]s extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as [[uric acid]] instead of [[urea]] or [[ammonia]] via the ureters into the intestine. This would have helped them to conserve water. In most living species, uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste. However, at least some modern birds (such as [[hummingbird]]s) can be facultatively [[ammonotelic]], excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the [[cloaca]]. In addition, many species regurgitate [[Pellet (ornithology)|pellets]], and fossil pellets are known as early as the Jurassic from [[Anchiornis]].", "The size and shape of the brain can be partly reconstructed based on the surrounding bones. In 1896, Marsh calculated ratios between brain weight and body weight of seven species of dinosaurs, showing that the brain of dinosaurs was proportionally smaller than in todays crocodiles, and that the brain of Stegosaurus was smaller than in any living land vertebrate. This contributed to the widespread public notion of dinosaurs as being sluggish and extraordinarily stupid. Harry Jerison, in 1973, showed that proportionally smaller brains are expected at larger body sizes, and that brain size in dinosaurs was not smaller than expected when compared to living reptiles. Later research showed that relative brain size progressively increased during the evolution of theropods, with the highest intelligence \u2013 comparable to that of modern birds \u2013 calculated for the troodontid [[Troodon]]."], "Reproductive biology": ["All dinosaurs laid [[Amniote|amniotic egg]]s with hard shells made mostly of [[calcium carbonate]]. Dinosaur eggs were usually laid in a nest. Most species create somewhat elaborate nests which can be cups, domes, plates, beds scrapes, mounds, or burrows. Some species of modern bird have no nests; the cliff-nesting [[Common murre|common guillemot]] lays its eggs on bare rock, and male [[emperor penguin]]s keep eggs between their body and feet. Primitive birds and many non-avialan dinosaurs often lay eggs in communal nests, with males primarily incubating the eggs. While modern birds have only one functional [[oviduct]] and lay one egg at a time, more primitive birds and dinosaurs had two oviducts, like crocodiles. Some non-avialan dinosaurs, such as [[Troodon]], exhibited iterative laying, where the adult might lay a pair of eggs every one or two days, and then ensured simultaneous hatching by delaying [[Broodiness#Broodiness in non-avian animals|brooding]] until all eggs were laid.", "When laying eggs, females grow a special type of bone between the hard outer bone and the [[Bone marrow|marrow]] of their limbs. This medullary bone, which is rich in [[calcium]], is used to make eggshells. A discovery of features in a Tyrannosaurus skeleton provided evidence of medullary bone in extinct dinosaurs and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a fossil dinosaur specimen. Further research has found medullary bone in the carnosaur Allosaurus and the ornithopod [[Tenontosaurus]]. Because the line of dinosaurs that includes Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus diverged from the line that led to Tenontosaurus very early in the evolution of dinosaurs, this suggests that the production of medullary tissue is a general characteristic of all dinosaurs.", "Another widespread trait among modern birds (but see below in regards to fossil groups and extant [[megapodes]]) is parental care for young after hatching. [[Jack Horner (paleontologist)|Jack Horners]] 1978 discovery of a [[Maiasaura]] (\"good mother lizard\") nesting ground in Montana demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among ornithopods. A specimen of the [[oviraptoridae|oviraptorid]] [[Citipati|Citipati osmolskae]] was discovered in a [[Chicken#Broodiness|chicken-like brooding position]] in 1993, which may indicate that they had begun using an insulating layer of feathers to keep the eggs warm. An embryo of the basal sauropodomorph [[Massospondylus]] was found without teeth, indicating that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaurs. Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among ornithopods from the [[Isle of Skye]] in northwestern [[Scotland]].", "However, there is ample evidence of [[precociality]] or [[Precociality#Superprecociality|superprecociality]] among many dinosaur species, particularly theropods. For instance, non-[[Euornithes|ornithuromorph]] birds have been abundantly demonstrated to have had slow growth rates, [[megapode]]-like egg burying behavior and the ability to fly soon after birth. Both Tyrannosaurus and Troodon had juveniles with clear superprecociality and likely occupying different ecological niches than the adults. Superprecociality has been inferred for sauropods.", "Genital structures are unlikely to fossilize as they lack scales that may allow preservation via pigmentation or residual calcium phosphate salts. In 2021, the best preserved specimen of a dinosaurs [[cloacal vent]] exterior was described for [[Psittacosaurus]], demonstrating lateral swellings similar to crocodylian musk glands used in social displays by both sexes and pigmented regions which could also reflect a signalling function. However, this specimen on its own does not offer enough information to determine whether this dinosaur had sexual signalling functions; it only supports the possibility. Cloacal visual signalling can occur in either males or females in living birds, making it unlikely to be useful to determine sex for extinct dinosaurs."], "Size": {"Largest and smallest": ["Scientists will probably never be certain of the [[largest organisms|largest and smallest dinosaurs]] to have ever existed. This is because only a tiny percentage of animals were ever fossilized and most of these remain buried in the earth. Few of the specimens that are recovered are complete skeletons, and impressions of skin and other soft tissues are rare. Rebuilding a complete skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar, better-known species is an inexact art, and reconstructing the muscles and other organs of the living animal is, at best, a process of educated guesswork.", "The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from good skeletons is [[Giraffatitan|Giraffatitan brancai]] (previously classified as a species of [[Brachiosaurus]]). Its remains were discovered in Tanzania between 1907 and 1912. Bones from several similar-sized individuals were incorporated into the skeleton now mounted and on display at the [[Natural History Museum, Berlin|Museum f\u00fcr Naturkunde]] in [[Berlin]]; this mount is tall and long, and would have belonged to an animal that weighed between and kilograms ( and lb). The longest complete dinosaur is the long Diplodocus, which was discovered in [[Wyoming]] in the [[United States]] and displayed in [[Pittsburgh]]s [[Carnegie Museum of Natural History]] in 1907. The longest dinosaur known from good fossil material is the [[Patagotitan]]: the skeleton mount in the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in [[New York City|New York]] is long. The [[Museo Carmen Funes|Museo Municipal Carmen Funes]] in [[Plaza Huincul]], Argentina, has an [[Argentinosaurus]] reconstructed skeleton mount that is long.", "There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of fragmentary fossils. Most of the largest herbivorous specimens on record were discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive Argentinosaurus, which may have weighed to kilograms (90 to 110 short tons) and reached lengths of ; some of the longest were the long Diplodocus hallorum (formerly Seismosaurus), the long [[Supersaurus]], and long Patagotitan; and the tallest, the tall [[Sauroposeidon]], which could have reached a sixth-floor window. The heaviest and longest dinosaur may have been [[Maraapunisaurus]], known only from a now lost partial vertebral [[Vertebra#Structure|neural arch]] described in 1878. Extrapolating from the illustration of this bone, the animal may have been long and weighed kg ( lb). However, as no further evidence of sauropods of this size has been found, and the discoverer, Cope, had made typographic errors before, it is likely to have been an extreme overestimation.", "The largest carnivorous dinosaur was [[Spinosaurus]], reaching a length of, and weighing. Other large carnivorous theropods included [[Giganotosaurus]], [[Carcharodontosaurus]] and [[Tyrannosaurus]]. [[Therizinosaurus]] and [[Deinocheirus]] were among the tallest of the theropods. The largest ornithischian dinosaur was probably the hadrosaurid [[Shantungosaurus|Shantungosaurus giganteus]] which measured. The largest individuals may have weighed as much as.", "The smallest dinosaur known is the [[bee hummingbird]], with a length of only and mass of around. The smallest known non-[[Avialae|avialan]] dinosaurs were about the size of [[pigeon]]s and were those theropods most closely related to birds. For example, [[Anchiornis huxleyi]] is currently the smallest non-avialan dinosaur described from an adult specimen, with an estimated weight of and a total skeletal length of. The smallest herbivorous non-avialan dinosaurs included [[Microceratus]] and [[Wannanosaurus]], at about long each."], "first_par": ["Current evidence suggests that dinosaur average size varied through the Triassic, Early Jurassic, Late Jurassic and Cretaceous. Predatory theropod dinosaurs, which occupied most terrestrial carnivore niches during the Mesozoic, most often fall into the category when sorted by estimated weight into categories based on [[order of magnitude]], whereas [[Holocene|recent]] predatory carnivoran mammals peak in the category. The [[Mode (statistics)|mode]] of Mesozoic dinosaur body masses is between. This contrasts sharply with the average size of Cenozoic mammals, estimated by the [[National Museum of Natural History]] as about.", "The sauropods were the largest and heaviest dinosaurs. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest was an order of magnitude more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth. Giant prehistoric mammals such as [[Paraceratherium]] (the largest land mammal ever) were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only modern whales approach or surpass them in size. There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments."]}, "first_par": ["Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non-fossil records, including fossilized bones, [[feces]], [[Fossil trackway|trackway]]s, [[gastrolith]]s, [[feather]]s, impressions of skin, [[Organ (anatomy)|internal organ]]s and other [[soft tissue]]s. Many fields of study contribute to our understanding of dinosaurs, including [[physics]] (especially [[biomechanics]]), [[chemistry]], [[biology]], and the [[Earth science]]s (of which [[paleontology]] is a sub-discipline). Two topics of particular interest and study have been dinosaur size and behavior."]}, "first_par": ["Dinosaurs are a diverse group of [[reptile]]s of the [[clade]] Dinosauria. They first appeared during the [[Triassic]] [[Geological period|period]], between 243 and 233.23 [[annum|million years ago]], although the exact origin and timing of the [[evolution of dinosaurs]] is the subject of active research. They became the dominant terrestrial [[vertebrate]]s after the [[Triassic\u2013Jurassic extinction event]] 201.3 million years ago; their dominance continued throughout the [[Jurassic]] and [[Cretaceous]] periods. The [[fossil]] record shows that [[bird]]s are modern [[feathered dinosaur]]s, having [[Evolution of birds|evolved]] from earlier [[Theropoda|theropods]] during the [[Late Jurassic]] [[Epoch (geology)|epoch]], and are the only dinosaur lineage to survive the [[Cretaceous\u2013Paleogene extinction event]] approximately 66 million years ago. Dinosaurs can therefore be divided into avian dinosaurs, or birds; and the extinct non-avian dinosaurs, which are all dinosaurs other than birds.", "Dinosaurs are a varied group of animals from [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]], [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] and [[ecology|ecological]] standpoints. Birds, at over 10,700 living [[species]], are among the most diverse group of vertebrates. Using fossil evidence, [[paleontology|paleontologists]] have identified over 900 distinct [[genus|genera]] and more than 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs. Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both [[Neontology#Extant taxa vs. extinct taxa|extant]] species (birds) and fossil remains. Through the first half of the 20th century, before birds were recognized as dinosaurs, most of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish and [[Poikilotherm|cold-blooded]]. Most [[Dinosaur renaissance|research conducted since the 1970s]], however, has indicated that dinosaurs were active animals with elevated [[metabolism]]s and numerous adaptations for social interaction. Some were [[Herbivore|herbivorous]], others [[Carnivore|carnivorous]]. Evidence suggests that all dinosaurs were [[Oviparity|egg-laying]]; and that [[nest]]-building was a trait shared by many dinosaurs, both avian and non-avian.", "While dinosaurs were ancestrally [[bipedalism|bipedal]], many [[extinction|extinct]] groups included [[quadrupedalism|quadrupedal]] species, and some were able to shift between these stances. Elaborate display structures such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups, and some extinct groups developed [[skeleton|skeletal]] modifications such as [[Armour (anatomy)|bony armor]] and [[spine (zoology)|spines]]. While the dinosaurs modern-day surviving avian lineage (birds) are generally small due to the constraints of flight, many prehistoric dinosaurs (non-avian and avian) were large-bodied\u2014the largest [[Sauropoda|sauropod]] dinosaurs are estimated to have reached lengths of and heights of and were the largest land animals of all time. The misconception that non-avian dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is based in part on [[Taphonomy|preservation bias]], as large, sturdy [[bone]]s are more likely to last until they are fossilized. Many dinosaurs were quite small, some measuring about in length.", "The first dinosaur fossils were recognized in the early 19th century, with the name \"dinosaur\" (meaning \"terrible lizard\") having been coined by Sir [[Richard Owen]] in 1841 to refer to these \"great fossil lizards\". Since then, mounted fossil dinosaur skeletons have been major attractions at museums worldwide, and dinosaurs have become an enduring part of popular culture. The large sizes of some dinosaurs, as well as their seemingly monstrous and fantastic nature, have ensured their regular appearance in best-selling books and films, such as [[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]. Persistent public enthusiasm for the animals has resulted in significant funding for dinosaur science, and new discoveries are regularly covered by the media."]}, "main_pages": {"\"Dinosaur renaissance\" and beyond": ["Dinosaur renaissance"], "Classification": ["Dinosaur classification"], "Cultural depictions": ["Cultural depictions of dinosaurs"], "Deccan Traps": ["Deccan Traps"], "Extinction of major groups": ["Cretaceous\u2013Paleogene extinction event"], "Feathers": ["Feathered dinosaurs"], "Impact event": ["Chicxulub crater"], "Origin of birds": ["Origin of birds"], "Physiology": ["Physiology of dinosaurs"], "Size": ["Dinosaur size"]}}, "Robot": {"page_content": {"Contemporary uses": {"Contemporary art and sculpture": ["Robots are used by contemporary artists to create works that include mechanical automation. There are many branches of robotic art, one of which is robotic installation art, a type of [[installation art]] that is programmed to respond to viewer interactions, by means of computers, sensors and actuators. The future behavior of such installations can therefore be altered by input from either the artist or the participant, which differentiates these artworks from other types of [[kinetic art]].", "[[Le Grand Palais]] in Paris organized an exhibition \"Artists & Robots\", featuring artworks created by more than forty artists with the help of robots in 2018."], "Dirty, dangerous, dull or inaccessible tasks": {"Automated fruit harvesting machines": ["Robots are used to [[fruit picking#automation|automate picking fruit]] on orchards at a cost lower than that of human pickers."], "Domestic robots": ["[[Domestic robots]] are simple robots dedicated to a single task work in home use. They are used in simple but often disliked jobs, such as [[vacuum cleaner|vacuum cleaning]], [[Scooba (brand)|floor washing]], and [[lawn mower|lawn mowing]]. An example of a domestic robot is a [[Roomba]]."], "Space probes": ["Almost every unmanned [[space probe]] ever launched was a robot. Some were launched in the 1960s with very limited abilities, but their ability to fly and land (in the case of [[Luna 9]]) is an indication of their status as a robot. This includes the [[Voyager probe]]s and the Galileo probes, among others."], "Telerobots": ["[[telerobotics|Teleoperated robots]], or telerobots, are devices [[teleoperation|remotely operated]] from a distance by a human operator rather than following a predetermined sequence of movements, but which has semi-autonomous behaviour. They are used when a human cannot be present on site to perform a job because it is dangerous, far away, or inaccessible. The robot may be in another room or another country, or may be on a very different scale to the operator. For instance, a laparoscopic surgery robot allows the surgeon to work inside a human patient on a relatively small scale compared to open surgery, significantly shortening recovery time. They can also be used to avoid exposing workers to the hazardous and tight spaces such as in [[Duct (HVAC)|duct]] cleaning. When disabling a bomb, the operator sends a small robot to disable it. Several authors have been using a device called the Longpen to sign books remotely. Teleoperated robot aircraft, like the Predator [[Unmanned Aerial Vehicle]], are increasingly being used by the military. These pilotless drones can search terrain and fire on targets. Hundreds of robots such as [[iRobot]]s [[Packbot]] and the [[Foster-Miller TALON]] are being used in [[Iraq]] and [[Afghanistan]] by the [[United States Armed Forces|U.S. military]] to defuse roadside bombs or [[improvised explosive device]]s (IEDs) in an activity known as [[explosive ordnance disposal]] (EOD)."], "first_par": ["There are many jobs which humans would rather leave to robots. The job may be boring, such as [[housekeeping|domestic cleaning]] or [[Line marker (sports)|sports field line marking]], or dangerous, such as exploring inside a [[volcano]]. Other jobs are physically inaccessible, such as exploring another [[planet]], cleaning the inside of a long pipe, or performing [[laparoscopic]] surgery."]}, "Factory robots": {"= Early AGV-style robots": ["Limited to tasks that could be accurately defined and had to be performed the same way every time. Very little feedback or intelligence was required, and the robots needed only the most basic [[wikt:exteroceptors|exteroceptors]] (sensors). The limitations of these AGVs are that their paths are not easily altered and they cannot alter their paths if obstacles block them. If one AGV breaks down, it may stop the entire operation."], "= Intelligent AGVs (i-AGVs)": ["Such as SmartLoader, SpeciMinder, ADAM, Tug Eskorta, and MT 400 with Motivity are designed for people-friendly workspaces. They navigate by recognizing natural features. [[3D scanner]]s or other means of sensing the environment in two or three dimensions help to eliminate cumulative [[observational error|errors]] in [[dead reckoning|dead-reckoning]] calculations of the AGVs current position. Some AGVs can create maps of their environment using scanning lasers with [[simultaneous localization and mapping]] (SLAM) and use those maps to navigate in real time with other [[path planning]] and obstacle avoidance algorithms. They are able to operate in complex environments and perform non-repetitive and non-sequential tasks such as transporting [[photomask]]s in a semiconductor lab, specimens in hospitals and goods in warehouses. For dynamic areas, such as warehouses full of pallets, AGVs require additional strategies using three-dimensional sensors such as [[time-of-flight camera|time-of-flight]] or [[computer stereo vision|stereovision]] cameras."], "= Interim AGV technologies": ["Developed to deploy triangulation from beacons or bar code grids for scanning on the floor or ceiling. In most factories, triangulation systems tend to require moderate to high maintenance, such as daily cleaning of all beacons or bar codes. Also, if a tall pallet or large vehicle blocks beacons or a bar code is marred, AGVs may become lost. Often such AGVs are designed to be used in human-free environments."], "Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)": ["Mobile robots, following markers or wires in the floor, or using vision or lasers, are used to transport goods around large facilities, such as warehouses, container ports, or hospitals."], "Car production": ["Over the last three decades, [[automotive industry|automobile factories]] have become dominated by robots. A typical factory contains hundreds of [[industrial robot]]s working on fully automated production lines, with one robot for every ten human workers. On an automated production line, a vehicle chassis on a conveyor is [[welding|welded]], [[adhesive|glued]], painted and finally assembled at a sequence of robot stations."], "Electronics": ["Mass-produced [[printed circuit board]]s (PCBs) are almost exclusively manufactured by pick-and-place robots, typically with [[SCARA]] manipulators, which remove tiny [[electronic component]]s from strips or trays, and place them on to PCBs with great accuracy. Such robots can place hundreds of thousands of components per hour, far out-performing a human in speed, accuracy, and reliability."], "Packaging": ["Industrial robots are also used extensively for palletizing and packaging of manufactured goods, for example for rapidly taking drink cartons from the end of a conveyor belt and placing them into boxes, or for loading and unloading machining centers."]}, "General-purpose autonomous robots": ["General-purpose autonomous robots can perform a variety of functions independently. General-purpose autonomous robots typically can navigate independently in known spaces, handle their own re-charging needs, interface with electronic doors and elevators and perform other basic tasks. Like computers, general-purpose robots can link with networks, software and accessories that increase their usefulness. They may recognize people or objects, talk, provide companionship, monitor environmental quality, respond to alarms, pick up supplies and perform other useful tasks. General-purpose robots may perform a variety of functions simultaneously or they may take on different roles at different times of day. Some such robots try to mimic human beings and may even resemble people in appearance; this type of robot is called a humanoid robot. Humanoid robots are still in a very limited stage, as no humanoid robot can, as of yet, actually navigate around a room that it has never been in. Thus, humanoid robots are really quite limited, despite their intelligent behaviors in their well-known environments."], "Healthcare": {"Home automation for the elderly and disabled": ["Robots used in [[Home automation for the elderly and disabled|home automation]] have developed over time from simple basic robotic assistants, such as the [[ST Robotics#History|Handy 1]], through to semi-autonomous robots, such as [[Care-Providing Robot FRIEND|FRIEND]] which can assist the elderly and disabled with common tasks.", "The population is [[gerontotechnology|aging]] in many countries, especially Japan, meaning that there are increasing numbers of elderly people to care for, but relatively fewer young people to care for them. Humans make the best carers, but where they are unavailable, robots are gradually being introduced.", "FRIEND is a semi-autonomous robot designed to support [[disability|disabled]] and [[old age|elderly]] people in their daily life activities, like preparing and serving a meal. FRIEND make it possible for [[patients]] who are [[paraplegia|paraplegic]], have muscle diseases or serious [[paralysis]] (due to strokes etc.), to perform tasks without help from other people like therapists or nursing staff."], "Pharmacies": ["Script Pro manufactures a robot designed to help pharmacies fill prescriptions that consist of oral solids or [[pharmaceutical drug|medications]] in pill form. The [[pharmacist]] or [[pharmacy technician]] enters the prescription information into its information system. The system, upon determining whether or not the drug is in the robot, will send the information to the robot for filling. The robot has 3 different size vials to fill determined by the size of the pill. The robot technician, user, or pharmacist determines the needed size of the vial based on the tablet when the robot is stocked. Once the vial is filled it is brought up to a conveyor belt that delivers it to a holder that spins the vial and attaches the patient label. Afterwards it is set on another conveyor that delivers the patients medication vial to a slot labeled with the patients name on an LED read out. The pharmacist or technician then checks the contents of the vial to ensure its the correct drug for the correct patient and then seals the vials and sends it out front to be picked up.", "McKessons Robot RX is another healthcare robotics product that helps pharmacies dispense thousands of medications daily with little or no errors. The robot can be ten feet wide and thirty feet long and can hold hundreds of different kinds of medications and thousands of doses. The pharmacy saves many resources like staff members that are otherwise unavailable in a resource scarce industry. It uses an [[electromechanics|electromechanical]] head coupled with a [[pneumatics|pneumatic]] system to capture each dose and deliver it to its either stocked or dispensed location. The head moves along a single axis while it rotates 180 degrees to pull the medications. During this process it uses [[barcode]] technology to verify its pulling the correct drug. It then delivers the drug to a patient specific bin on a conveyor belt. Once the bin is filled with all of the drugs that a particular patient needs and that the robot stocks, the bin is then released and returned out on the conveyor belt to a technician waiting to load it into a cart for delivery to the floor."], "first_par": ["Robots in healthcare have two main functions. Those which assist an individual, such as a sufferer of a disease like Multiple Sclerosis, and those which aid in the overall systems such as pharmacies and hospitals."]}, "Military robots": ["Military robots include the [[SWORDS robot]] which is currently used in ground-based combat. It can use a variety of weapons and there is some discussion of giving it some degree of autonomy in battleground situations.", "[[Unmanned combat air vehicle]]s (UCAVs), which are an upgraded form of [[unmanned aerial vehicle|UAVs]], can do a wide variety of missions, including combat. UCAVs are being designed such as the [[BAE Systems Mantis]] which would have the ability to fly themselves, to pick their own course and target, and to make most decisions on their own. The [[BAE Systems Taranis|BAE Taranis]] is a UCAV built by Great Britain which can fly across continents without a pilot and has new means to avoid detection. Flight trials are expected to begin in 2011.", "The [[Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence|AAAI]] has studied this topic in depth and its president has commissioned a study to look at this issue.", "Some have suggested a need to build \"[[Friendly AI]]\", meaning that the advances which are already occurring with AI should also include an effort to make AI intrinsically friendly and humane. Several such measures reportedly already exist, with robot-heavy countries such as Japan and South Korea having begun to pass regulations requiring robots to be equipped with safety systems, and possibly sets of laws akin to Asimovs [[Three Laws of Robotics]]. An official report was issued in 2009 by the Japanese governments Robot Industry Policy Committee. Chinese officials and researchers have issued a report suggesting a set of ethical rules, and a set of new legal guidelines referred to as \"Robot Legal Studies.\" Some concern has been expressed over a possible occurrence of robots telling apparent falsehoods."], "Mining robots": ["Mining robots are designed to solve a number of problems currently facing the mining industry, including skills shortages, improving productivity from declining ore grades, and achieving environmental targets. Due to the hazardous nature of mining, in particular [[underground mining]], the prevalence of autonomous, semi-autonomous, and tele-operated robots has greatly increased in recent times. A number of vehicle manufacturers provide autonomous trains, trucks and [[Loader (equipment)|loaders]] that will load material, transport it on the mine site to its destination, and unload without requiring human intervention. One of the worlds largest mining corporations, [[Rio Tinto Group|Rio Tinto]], has recently expanded its autonomous truck fleet to the worlds largest, consisting of 150 autonomous [[Komatsu Limited|Komatsu]] trucks, operating in [[Western Australia]]. Similarly, [[BHP Billiton|BHP]] has announced the expansion of its autonomous drill fleet to the worlds largest, 21 autonomous [[Atlas Copco]] drills.", "Drilling, [[Longwall mining|longwall]] and [[rockbreaker|rockbreaking]] machines are now also available as autonomous robots. The [[Atlas Copco]] Rig Control System can autonomously execute a drilling plan on a [[drilling rig]], moving the rig into position using GPS, set up the drill rig and drill down to specified depths. Similarly, the [[Transmin]] Rocklogic system can automatically plan a path to position a rockbreaker at a selected destination. These systems greatly enhance the safety and efficiency of mining operations."], "Research robots": {"Bionic and biomimetic robots": ["One approach to designing robots is to base them on animals. [[BionicKangaroo]] was designed and engineered by studying and applying the physiology and methods of locomotion of a kangaroo."], "Haptic interface robots": ["Robotics also has application in the design of [[virtual reality]] interfaces. Specialized robots are in widespread use in the [[haptic technology|haptic]] research community. These robots, called \"haptic interfaces\", allow touch-enabled user interaction with real and virtual environments. Robotic forces allow simulating the mechanical properties of \"virtual\" objects, which users can experience through their sense of [[somatosensory system|touch]]."], "Nanorobots": ["[[Nanorobotics]] is the [[emerging technology]] field of creating machines or robots whose components are at or close to the microscopic scale of a [[nanometer]] (10<sup>\u22129</sup> meters). Also known as \"nanobots\" or \"nanites\", they would be constructed from [[molecular machine]]s. So far, researchers have mostly produced only parts of these complex systems, such as bearings, sensors, and [[synthetic molecular motors]], but functioning robots have also been made such as the entrants to the Nanobot Robocup contest. Researchers also hope to be able to create entire robots as small as viruses or bacteria, which could perform tasks on a tiny scale. Possible applications include micro surgery (on the level of individual [[cell (biology)|cells]]), [[utility fog]], manufacturing, weaponry and cleaning. Some people have suggested that if there were nanobots which could reproduce, the earth would turn into \"[[grey goo]]\", while others argue that this hypothetical outcome is nonsense."], "Reconfigurable robots": ["A few researchers have investigated the possibility of creating robots which can [[self-reconfiguring modular robot|alter their physical form]] to suit a particular task, like the fictional [[T-1000]]. Real robots are nowhere near that sophisticated however, and mostly consist of a small number of cube shaped units, which can move relative to their neighbours. Algorithms have been designed in case any such robots become a reality."], "Robotic, mobile laboratory operators": ["In July 2020 scientists reported the development of a mobile robot chemist and demonstrate that it can assist in experimental searches. According to the scientists their strategy was [[Laboratory automation|automating]] the researcher rather than the instruments \u2013 freeing up time for the human researchers to think creatively \u2013 and could identify photocatalyst mixtures for hydrogen production from water that were six times more active than initial formulations. The modular robot can operate laboratory instruments, work nearly around the clock, and autonomously make decisions on his next actions depending on experimental results."], "Soft-bodied robots": ["Robots with [[silicone]] bodies and flexible actuators ([[pneumatic artificial muscles|air muscles]], [[electroactive polymers]], and [[ferrofluid]]s) look and feel different from robots with rigid skeletons, and can have different behaviors. Soft, flexible (and sometimes even squishy) robots are often designed to mimic the biomechanics of animals and other things found in nature, which is leading to new applications in medicine, care giving, search and rescue, food handling and manufacturing, and scientific exploration."], "Swarm robots": [], "first_par": ["While most robots today are installed in factories or homes, performing labour or life saving jobs, many new types of robot are being developed in [[laboratory|laboratories]] around the world. Much of the research in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but on investigations into new types of robot, alternative ways to think about or design robots, and new ways to manufacture them. It is expected that these new types of robot will be able to solve real world problems when they are finally realized."]}, "first_par": ["At present, there are two main types of robots, based on their use: [[humanoid robot|general-purpose autonomous robots]] and dedicated robots.", "Robots can be classified by their [[sensitivity and specificity|specificity]] of purpose. A robot might be designed to perform one particular task extremely well, or a range of tasks less well. All robots by their nature can be re-programmed to behave differently, but some are limited by their physical form. For example, a factory robot arm can perform jobs such as cutting, welding, gluing, or acting as a fairground ride, while a pick-and-place robot can only populate printed circuit boards."]}, "Etymology": ["The word robot was introduced to the public by the [[Czechs|Czech]] [[Interwar period|interwar]] writer [[Karel \u010capek]] in his play [[R.U.R. (Rossums Universal Robots)]], published in 1920. The play begins in a factory that uses a chemical substitute for protoplasm to manufacture living, simplified people called robots. The play does not focus in detail on the technology behind the creation of these living creatures, but in their appearance they prefigure modern ideas of [[android (robot)|androids]], creatures who can be mistaken for humans. These mass-produced workers are depicted as efficient but emotionless, incapable of original thinking and indifferent to self-preservation. At issue is whether the robots are being [[Exploitation of labour|exploited]] and the consequences of human dependence upon commodified labor (especially after a number of specially-formulated robots achieve self-awareness and incite robots all around the world to rise up against the humans).", "Karel \u010capek himself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an [[etymology]] in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] in which he named his brother, the painter and writer [[Josef \u010capek]], as its actual originator.", "In an article in the Czech journal [[Lidov\u00e9 noviny]] in 1933, he explained that he had originally wanted to call the creatures labo\u0159i (\"workers\", from [[Latin]] labor). However, he did not like the word, and sought advice from his brother Josef, who suggested \"roboti\". The word robota means literally \"[[corv\u00e9e]]\", \"serf labor\", and figuratively \"drudgery\" or \"hard work\" in [[Czech language|Czech]] and also (more general) \"work\", \"labor\" in many [[Slavic languages]] (e.g.: [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], archaic [[Czech language|Czech]], as well as robot in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]). Traditionally the robota (Hungarian robot) was the work period a serf ([[corv\u00e9e]]) had to give for his lord, typically 6 months of the year. The origin of the word is the [[Old Church Slavonic]] ([[Old Bulgarian]]) rabota \"servitude\" (\"work\" in contemporary [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]), which in turn comes from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root *orbh-. Robot is [[cognate]] with the German root Arbeit (work).", "The word [[robotics]], used to describe this field of study, was coined by the science fiction writer [[Isaac Asimov]]. Asimov created the \"[[Three Laws of Robotics]]\" which are a recurring theme in his books. These have since been used by many others to define laws used in fiction. (The three laws are pure fiction, and no technology yet created has the ability to understand or follow them, and in fact most robots serve military purposes, which run quite contrary to the first law and often the third law. \"People think about Asimovs laws, but they were set up to point out how a simple ethical system doesnt work. If you read the short stories, every single one is about a failure, and they are totally impractical,\" said Dr. Joanna Bryson of the University of Bath.)"], "Future development and trends": {"New functionalities and prototypes": ["In 2008, [[Caterpillar Inc.]] developed a dump truck which can drive itself without any human operator. Many analysts believe that self-driving trucks may eventually revolutionize logistics. By 2014, Caterpillar had a self-driving dump truck which is expected to greatly change the process of mining. In 2015, these Caterpillar trucks were actively used in mining operations in Australia by the mining company [[Rio Tinto Coal Australia]]. Some analysts believe that within the next few decades, most trucks will be self-driving.", "A literate or reading robot named Marge has intelligence that comes from software. She can read newspapers, find and correct misspelled words, learn about banks like Barclays, and understand that some restaurants are better places to eat than others.", "[[Baxter (robot)|Baxter]] is a new robot introduced in 2012 which learns by guidance. A worker could teach Baxter how to perform a task by moving its hands in the desired motion and having Baxter memorize them. Extra dials, buttons, and controls are available on Baxters arm for more precision and features. Any regular worker could program Baxter and it only takes a matter of minutes, unlike usual industrial robots that take extensive programs and coding in order to be used. This means Baxter needs no programming in order to operate. No software engineers are needed. This also means Baxter can be taught to perform multiple, more complicated tasks. Sawyer was added in 2015 for smaller, more precise tasks."], "first_par": ["Various techniques have emerged to develop the science of robotics and robots. One method is [[evolutionary robotics]], in which a number of differing robots are submitted to tests. Those which perform best are used as a model to create a subsequent \"generation\" of robots. Another method is [[developmental robotics]], which tracks changes and development within a single robot in the areas of problem-solving and other functions. Another new type of robot is just recently introduced which acts both as a smartphone and robot and is named RoboHon.", "As robots become more advanced, eventually there may be a standard computer operating system designed mainly for robots. [[ROS (Robot Operating System)|Robot Operating System]] is an open-source set of programs being developed at [[Stanford University]], the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] and the [[Technical University of Munich]], Germany, among others. ROS provides ways to program a [[robot navigation|robots navigation]] and limbs regardless of the specific hardware involved. It also provides high-level commands for items like [[image recognition]] and even opening doors. When ROS boots up on a robots computer, it would obtain data on attributes such as the length and movement of robots limbs. It would relay this data to higher-level algorithms. Microsoft is also developing a \"Windows for robots\" system with its Robotics Developer Studio, which has been available since 2007.", "Japan hopes to have full-scale commercialization of service robots by 2025. Much technological research in Japan is led by Japanese government agencies, particularly the Trade Ministry.", "Many future applications of robotics seem obvious to people, even though they are well beyond the capabilities of robots available at the time of the prediction. As early as 1982 people were confident that someday robots would: 1. Clean parts by removing [[molding flash]] 2. Spray paint automobiles with absolutely no human presence 3. Pack things in boxes\u2014for example, orient and nest chocolate candies in candy boxes 4. Make electrical [[cable harness]] 5. Load trucks with boxes\u2014a [[packing problem]] 6. Handle soft goods, such as garments and shoes 7. Shear sheep 8. [[prosthesis]] 9. Cook fast food and work in other service industries 10. Household robot.", "Generally such predictions are overly optimistic in timescale."]}, "History": {"Early beginnings": ["Many ancient mythologies, and most modern religions include artificial people, such as the mechanical servants built by the Greek god [[Hephaestus]] ([[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]] to the Romans), the clay [[golem]]s of Jewish legend and clay giants of Norse legend, and [[Galatea (mythology)|Galatea]], the mythical statue of [[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]] that came to life. Since circa 400 BC, myths of [[Crete]] include [[Talos]], a man of bronze who guarded the island from pirates.", "In ancient Greece, the Greek engineer [[Ctesibius]] (c. 270 BC) \"applied a knowledge of pneumatics and hydraulics to produce the first organ and water clocks with moving figures.\" In the 4th century BC, the [[Greek mathematics|Greek]] mathematician [[Archytas]] of Tarentum postulated a mechanical steam-operated bird he called \"The Pigeon\". [[Hero of Alexandria]], a Greek mathematician and inventor, created numerous user-configurable automated devices, and described machines powered by air pressure, steam and water.", "The 11th century Lokapannatti tells of how the Buddhas relics were protected by mechanical robots (bhuta vahana yanta), from the kingdom of Roma visaya (Rome); until they were disarmed by King [[Ashoka]]. ", "In ancient China, the 3rd-century text of the Lie Zi describes an account of humanoid automata, involving a much earlier encounter between Chinese emperor [[King Mu of Zhou]] and a mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi, an artificer. Yan Shi proudly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical handiwork made of leather, wood, and artificial organs. There are also accounts of flying automata in the Han Fei Zi and other texts, which attributes the 5th century BC [[Mohism|Mohist]] philosopher [[Mozi]] and his contemporary [[Lu Ban]] with the invention of artificial wooden birds (ma yuan) that could successfully fly.", " In 1066, the Chinese inventor [[Su Song]] built a [[water clock]] in the form of a tower which featured mechanical figurines which chimed the hours. His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs ([[cam]]s) that bumped into little [[lever]]s that operated percussion instruments. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns by moving the pegs to different locations.", "[[Samarangana Sutradhara]], a [[Sanskrit]] treatise by [[Bhoja]] (11th century), includes a chapter about the construction of mechanical contrivances ([[automata]]), including mechanical bees and birds, fountains shaped like humans and animals, and male and female dolls that refilled oil lamps, danced, played instruments, and re-enacted scenes from Hindu mythology.", "13th century [[List of Muslim scientists|Muslim Scientist]] [[Ismail al-Jazari]] created several automated devices. He built automated moving peacocks driven by hydropower. He also invented the earliest known automatic gates, which were driven by hydropower, created automatic doors as part of one of his elaborate [[water clock]]s. One of al-Jazaris [[Humanoid robot|humanoid automata]] was a waitress that could serve water, tea or drinks. The drink was stored in a tank with a reservoir from where the drink drips into a bucket and, after seven minutes, into a cup, after which the waitress appears out of an automatic door serving the drink. Al-Jazari invented a hand washing [[automaton]] incorporating a flush mechanism now used in modern [[flush toilet]]s. It features a female [[Humanoid robot|humanoid automaton]] standing by a basin filled with water. When the user pulls the lever, the water drains and the female automaton refills the basin.", "In [[Renaissance]] Italy, [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452\u20131519) sketched plans for a humanoid robot around 1495. Da Vincis notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contained detailed drawings of a mechanical knight now known as [[Leonardos robot]], able to sit up, wave its arms and move its head and jaw. The design was probably based on anatomical research recorded in his [[Vitruvian Man]]. It is not known whether he attempted to build it. According to [[Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]] may have been influenced by the classic automata of al-Jazari.", "In Japan, complex animal and human automata were built between the 17th to 19th centuries, with many described in the 18th century Karakuri zui (Illustrated Machinery, 1796). One such automaton was the [[karakuri ningy\u014d]], a mechanized [[puppet]]. Different variations of the karakuri existed: the Butai karakuri, which were used in [[theatre]], the Zashiki karakuri, which were small and used in homes, and the Dashi karakuri which were used in religious festivals, where the puppets were used to perform reenactments of traditional [[mythology|myths]] and [[legend]]s.", "In France, between 1738 and 1739, [[Jacques de Vaucanson]] exhibited several life-sized automatons: a flute player, a pipe player and a duck. The mechanical duck could flap its wings, crane its neck, and swallow food from the exhibitors hand, and it gave the illusion of digesting its food by excreting matter stored in a hidden compartment."], "Early robots": ["In 1928, one of the first humanoid robots, [[Eric (robot)|Eric]], was exhibited at the annual exhibition of the Model Engineers Society in [[London]], where it delivered a speech. Invented by W. H. Richards, the robots frame consisted of an [[aluminium]] [[body armour|body of armour]] with eleven [[electromagnet]]s and one motor powered by a twelve-volt power source. The robot could move its hands and head and could be controlled through remote control or voice control. Both Eric and his \"brother\" George toured the world.", "[[Westinghouse Electric Corporation]] built Televox in 1926; it was a cardboard cutout connected to various devices which users could turn on and off. In 1939, the humanoid robot known as [[Elektro]] was debuted at the [[1939 New York Worlds Fair]]. Seven feet tall (2.1 m) and weighing 265 pounds (120.2 kg), it could walk by voice command, speak about 700 words (using a 78-rpm [[record player]]), smoke cigarettes, blow up balloons, and move its head and arms. The body consisted of a steel gear, cam and motor skeleton covered by an aluminum skin. In 1928, Japans first robot, [[Gakutensoku]], was designed and constructed by biologist Makoto Nishimura."], "Modern autonomous robots": ["The first electronic autonomous robots with complex behaviour were created by [[William Grey Walter]] of the [[Burden Neurological Institute]] at [[Bristol]], England in 1948 and 1949. He wanted to prove that rich connections between a small number of [[neurons|brain cells]] could give rise to very complex [[behavior]]s \u2013 essentially that the secret of how the brain worked lay in how it was wired up. His first robots, named Elmer and Elsie, were constructed between 1948 and 1949 and were often described as tortoises due to their shape and slow rate of movement. The three-wheeled tortoise robots were capable of [[phototaxis]], by which they could find their way to a recharging station when they ran low on battery power.", "Walter stressed the importance of using purely [[wiktionary:analogue|analogue]] electronics to [[simulate]] brain processes at a time when his contemporaries such as [[Alan Turing]] and [[John von Neumann]] were all turning towards a view of mental processes in terms of [[digital data|digital]] [[computation]]. His work inspired subsequent generations of robotics researchers such as [[Rodney Brooks]], [[Hans Moravec]] and [[Mark Tilden]]. Modern incarnations of Walters turtles may be found in the form of [[BEAM robotics]].", "The first digitally operated and programmable robot was invented by [[George Devol]] in 1954 and was ultimately called the [[Unimate]]. This ultimately laid the foundations of the modern robotics industry. Devol sold the first Unimate to [[General Motors]] in 1960, and it was installed in 1961 in a plant in [[Trenton, New Jersey]] to lift hot pieces of metal from a [[die casting]] machine and stack them. Devols patent for the first digitally operated programmable robotic arm represents the foundation of the modern robotics industry.", "The first [[Palletizer|palletizing robot]] was introduced in 1963 by the Fuji Yusoki Kogyo Company. In 1973, a robot with six electromechanically driven axes was patented by [[KUKA]] robotics in Germany, and the [[Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly|programmable universal manipulation arm]] was invented by [[Victor Scheinman]] in 1976, and the design was sold to [[Unimation]].", "Commercial and industrial robots are now in widespread use performing jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and reliability than humans. They are also employed for jobs which are too dirty, dangerous or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, and mass production of consumer and industrial goods."], "Origin of the term robot": ["Robot was first applied as a term for artificial automata in the 1920 play [[Rossums Universal Robots|R.U.R.]] by the [[Czech Republic|Czech]] writer, [[Karel \u010capek]]. However, [[Josef \u010capek]] was named by his brother Karel as the true inventor of the term robot. The word robot itself was not new, having been in the Slavic language as robota (forced labor), a term applied to peasants obligated to compulsory service under the [[feudal]] system (see: [[Robot Patent]]).", "\u010capeks fictional story postulated the technological creation of artificial human bodies without souls, and the old theme of the feudal robota class eloquently fit the imagination of a new class of manufactured, artificial workers.", "English pronunciation of the word has evolved relatively quickly since its introduction. In the U.S. during the late 30s to early 40s the second syllable was pronounced with a long \"O\" like \"row-boat.\" By the late 50s to early 60s, some were pronouncing it with a short \"U\" like \"row-but\" while others used a softer \"O\" like \"row-bought.\" By the 70s, its current pronunciation \"row-bot\" had become predominant."], "Remote-controlled systems": ["Remotely operated vehicles were demonstrated in the late 19th century in the form of several types of remotely controlled [[torpedo]]es. The early 1870s saw remotely controlled [[torpedo]]es by [[John Ericsson]] ([[Pneumatics|pneumatic]]), [[John Louis Lay]] (electric wire guided), and [[Victor von Scheliha]] (electric wire guided).", "The [[Brennan torpedo]], invented by [[Louis Brennan]] in 1877, was powered by two contra-rotating propellors that were spun by rapidly pulling out wires from drums wound inside the [[torpedo]]. Differential speed on the wires connected to the shore station allowed the torpedo to be guided to its target, making it \"the worlds first practical guided missile\". In 1897 the British inventor Ernest Wilson was granted a patent for a torpedo remotely controlled by \"Hertzian\" (radio) waves and in 1898 [[Nikola Tesla]] publicly demonstrated a wireless-controlled [[torpedo]] that he hoped to sell to the [[US Navy]].", "[[Archibald Low]], known as the \"father of radio guidance systems\" for his pioneering work on guided rockets and planes during the [[First World War]]. In 1917, he demonstrated a remote controlled aircraft to the [[Royal Flying Corps]] and in the same year built the first wire-guided rocket."], "first_par": ["The idea of automata originates in the mythologies of many cultures around the world. Engineers and inventors from ancient civilizations, including [[Ancient China]], [[Ancient Greece]], and [[Ptolemaic Egypt]], attempted to build self-operating machines, some resembling animals and humans. Early descriptions of automata include the artificial doves of [[Archytas]], the artificial birds of [[Mozi]] and [[Lu Ban]], a \"speaking\" automaton by [[Hero of Alexandria]], a washstand automaton by [[Philo of Byzantium]], and a human automaton described in the [[Lie Zi]]."]}, "Modern robots": {"Collaborative robots": ["A collaborative robot or [[cobot]] is a robot that can safely and effectively interact with human workers while performing simple industrial tasks. However, end-effectors and other environmental conditions may create hazards, and as such risk assessments should be done before using any industrial motion-control application.", "The collaborative robots most widely used in industries today are manufactured by [[Universal Robots]] in Denmark.", "[[Rethink Robotics]]\u2014founded by [[Rodney Brooks]], previously with [[iRobot]]\u2014introduced [[Baxter (robot)|Baxter]] in September 2012; as an [[industrial robot]] designed to safely interact with neighboring human workers, and be programmable for performing simple tasks. Baxters stop if they detect a human in the way of their robotic arms and have prominent off switches. Intended for sale to small businesses, they are promoted as the robotic analogue of the personal computer., 190 companies in the US have bought Baxters and they are being used commercially in the UK."], "Educational (interactive) robots": ["Robots are used as educational assistants to teachers. From the 1980s, robots such as [[turtle (robot)|turtles]] were used in schools and programmed using the [[Logo (programming language)|Logo]] language.", "There are [[robot kit]]s like [[Mindstorms NXT|Lego Mindstorms]], [[Robotis Bioloid|BIOLOID]], OLLO from ROBOTIS, or BotBrain Educational Robots can help children to learn about mathematics, physics, programming, and electronics. Robotics have also been introduced into the lives of elementary and high school students in the form of [[robot competition]]s with the company [[FIRST]] (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology). The organization is the foundation for the [[FIRST Robotics Competition]], [[FIRST LEGO League]], [[Junior FIRST LEGO League]], and [[FIRST Tech Challenge]] competitions.", "There have also been robots such as the teaching computer, Leachim (1974). Leachim was an early example of speech synthesis using the using the [[Speech synthesis#Diphone synthesis|Diphone synthesis]] method. [[2-XL]] (1976) was a robot shaped game / teaching toy based on branching between audible tracks on an [[8-track tape]] player, both invented by [[Michael J. Freeman]]. Later, the 8-track was upgraded to tape cassettes and then to digital."], "Industrial robots (manipulating)": ["Industrial robots usually consist of a [[jointed arm]] (multi-linked manipulator) and an [[robot end effector|end effector]] that is attached to a fixed surface. One of the most common type of end effector is a [[Robot end effector|gripper]] assembly.", "\"an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications.\"", "This definition is used by the [[International Federation of Robotics]], the European Robotics Research Network (EURON) and many national standards committees."], "Mobile robot": ["Mobile robots have the capability to move around in their environment and are not fixed to one physical location. An example of a mobile robot that is in common use today is the automated guided vehicle or automatic guided vehicle (AGV). An AGV is a mobile robot that follows markers or wires in the floor, or uses vision or lasers. AGVs are discussed later in this article.", "Mobile robots are also found in industry, military and security environments. They also appear as consumer products, for entertainment or to perform certain tasks like vacuum cleaning. Mobile robots are the focus of a great deal of current research and almost every major university has one or more labs that focus on mobile robot research.", "Mobile robots are usually used in tightly controlled environments such as on [[assembly line]]s because they have difficulty responding to unexpected interference. Because of this most humans rarely encounter robots. However [[domestic robot]]s for cleaning and maintenance are increasingly common in and around homes in developed countries. Robots can also be found in [[military robot|military]] applications."], "Modular robot": ["Modular robots are a new breed of robots that are designed to increase the utilization of robots by modularizing their architecture. The functionality and effectiveness of a modular robot is easier to increase compared to conventional robots. These robots are composed of a single type of identical, several different identical module types, or similarly shaped modules, which vary in size. Their architectural structure allows hyper-redundancy for modular robots, as they can be designed with more than 8 degrees of freedom (DOF). Creating the programming, [[inverse kinematics]] and dynamics for modular robots is more complex than with traditional robots. Modular robots may be composed of L-shaped modules, cubic modules, and U and H-shaped modules. ANAT technology, an early modular robotic technology patented by Robotics Design Inc., allows the creation of modular robots from U and H shaped modules that connect in a chain, and are used to form heterogeneous and homogenous modular robot systems. These \"ANAT robots\" can be designed with \"n\" DOF as each module is a complete motorized robotic system that folds relatively to the modules connected before and after it in its chain, and therefore a single module allows one degree of freedom. The more modules that are connected to one another, the more degrees of freedom it will have. L-shaped modules can also be designed in a chain, and must become increasingly smaller as the size of the chain increases, as payloads attached to the end of the chain place a greater strain on modules that are further from the base. ANAT H-shaped modules do not suffer from this problem, as their design allows a modular robot to distribute pressure and impacts evenly amongst other attached modules, and therefore payload-carrying capacity does not decrease as the length of the arm increases. Modular robots can be manually or self-reconfigured to form a different robot, that may perform different applications. Because modular robots of the same architecture type are composed of modules that compose different modular robots, a snake-arm robot can combine with another to form a dual or quadra-arm robot, or can split into several mobile robots, and mobile robots can split into multiple smaller ones, or combine with others into a larger or different one. This allows a single modular robot the ability to be fully specialized in a single task, as well as the capacity to be specialized to perform multiple different tasks.", "Modular robotic technology is currently being applied in hybrid transportation, industrial automation, duct cleaning and handling. Many research centres and universities have also studied this technology, and have developed prototypes."], "Service robot": ["Most commonly industrial robots are fixed robotic arms and manipulators used primarily for production and distribution of goods. The term \"service robot\" is less well-defined. The [[International Federation of Robotics]] has proposed a tentative definition, \"A service robot is a robot which operates semi- or fully autonomously to perform services useful to the well-being of humans and equipment, excluding manufacturing operations.\""]}, "Robots in society": {"Autonomy and ethical questions": ["As robots have become more advanced and sophisticated, experts and academics have increasingly explored the questions of what ethics might govern robots behavior, and whether robots might be able to claim any kind of social, cultural, ethical or legal rights. One scientific team has said that it is possible that a robot brain will exist by 2019. Others predict robot intelligence breakthroughs by 2050. Recent advances have made robotic behavior more sophisticated. The social impact of intelligent robots is subject of a 2010 documentary film called [[Plug & Pray]].", "[[Vernor Vinge]] has suggested that a moment may come when computers and robots are smarter than humans. He calls this \"[[technological singularity|the Singularity]]\". He suggests that it may be somewhat or possibly very dangerous for humans. This is discussed by a philosophy called [[Singularitarianism]].", "In 2009, experts attended a conference hosted by the [[Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence]] (AAAI) to discuss whether computers and robots might be able to acquire any autonomy, and how much these abilities might pose a threat or hazard. They noted that some robots have acquired various forms of semi-autonomy, including being able to find power sources on their own and being able to independently choose targets to attack with weapons. They also noted that some computer viruses can evade elimination and have achieved \"cockroach intelligence.\" They noted that self-awareness as depicted in science-fiction is probably unlikely, but that there were other potential hazards and pitfalls. Various media sources and scientific groups have noted separate trends in differing areas which might together result in greater robotic functionalities and autonomy, and which pose some inherent concerns. In 2015, the Nao alderen robots were shown to have a capability for a degree of self-awareness. Researchers at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute AI and Reasoning Lab in New York conducted an experiment where a robot became aware of itself, and corrected its answer to a question once it had realised this."], "Military robots": ["Some experts and academics have questioned the use of robots for military combat, especially when such robots are given some degree of autonomous functions. There are also concerns about technology which might allow some armed robots to be controlled mainly by other robots. The US Navy has funded a report which indicates that, as [[military robots]] become more complex, there should be greater attention to implications of their ability to make autonomous decisions. One researcher states that autonomous robots might be more humane, as they could make decisions more effectively. However, other experts question this.", "One robot in particular, the [[Energetically Autonomous Tactical Robot|EATR]], has generated public concerns over its fuel source, as it can continually refuel itself using organic substances. Although the engine for the EATR is designed to run on [[biomass]] and vegetation specifically selected by its sensors, which it can find on battlefields or other local environments, the project has stated that chicken fat can also be used.", "[[Manuel De Landa]] has noted that \"smart missiles\" and autonomous bombs equipped with artificial perception can be considered robots, as they make some of their decisions autonomously. He believes this represents an important and dangerous trend in which humans are handing over important decisions to machines."], "Relationship to unemployment": ["For centuries, people have predicted that machines would make [[Technological unemployment|workers obsolete and increase unemployment]], although the causes of unemployment are usually thought to be due to social policy.", "A recent example of human replacement involves Taiwanese technology company [[Foxconn]] who, in July 2011, announced a three-year plan to replace workers with more robots. At present the company uses ten thousand robots but will increase them to a million robots over a three-year period.", "Lawyers have speculated that an increased prevalence of robots in the workplace could lead to the need to improve redundancy laws.", "Kevin J. Delaney said \"Robots are taking human jobs. But Bill Gates believes that governments should tax companies\u2019 use of them, as a way to at least temporarily slow the spread of automation and to fund other types of employment.\" The [[robot tax]] would also help pay a guaranteed living wage to the displaced workers.", "The [[World Bank]]s [[World Development Report]] 2019 puts forth evidence showing that while automation displaces workers, technological innovation creates more new industries and jobs on balance."], "first_par": ["Roughly half of all the robots in the world are in Asia, 32% in Europe, and 16% in North America, 1% in [[Australasia]] and 1% in Africa. 40% of all the robots in the world are in [[Japan]], making Japan the country with the highest number of robots."]}, "Summary": ["The word robot can refer to both physical robots and [[Virtuality|virtual]] [[software agent]]s, but the latter are usually referred to as [[Internet bot|bots]]. There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots but there is general agreement among experts, and the public, that robots tend to possess some or all of the following abilities and functions: accept electronic programming, process data or [[machine perception|physical perceptions]] electronically, operate autonomously to some degree, move around, operate physical parts of itself or physical processes, sense and manipulate their environment, and exhibit intelligent behavior, especially behavior which mimics humans or other animals. Closely related to the concept of a robot is the field of [[Synthetic Biology]], which studies entities whose nature is more comparable to [[being]]s than to machines."], "first_par": ["A robot is a [[machine]]\u2014especially one [[Computer program|program]]mable by a [[computer]]\u2014 capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically. Robots can be guided by an external control device or the [[robot control|control]] may be embedded within. Robots may be constructed on the lines of [[Humanoid robot|human form]], but most robots are machines designed to perform a task with no regard to their aesthetics.", "Robots can be [[autonomous robot|autonomous]] or semi-autonomous and range from humanoids such as [[Honda]]s Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility ([[ASIMO]]) and [[TOSY]]s TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot ([[TOPIO]]) to [[industrial robot]]s, [[robot-assisted surgery|medical operating robot]]s, patient assist robots, dog therapy robots, collectively programmed [[Swarm robotics|swarm robots]], [[UAV drones]] such as [[General Atomics MQ-1 Predator]], and even microscopic [[Nanorobotics|nano robots]]. By mimicking a lifelike appearance or automating movements, a robot may convey a sense of intelligence or [[Agency (philosophy)|thought]] of its own. [[Autonomous things]] are expected to proliferate in the coming decade, with home robotics and the [[autonomous car]] as some of the main drivers.", "The branch of [[technology]] that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots, as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and [[information processing]] is [[robotics]]. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or [[manufacturing process]]es, or resemble humans in appearance, behavior, or cognition. Many of todays robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of [[bio-inspired robotics]]. These robots have also created a newer branch of robotics: [[soft robotics]].", "From the time of [[ancient civilization]], there have been many accounts of user-configurable automated devices and even [[automata]] resembling humans and other animals, designed primarily as entertainment. As mechanical techniques developed through the [[Industrial age]], there appeared more practical applications such as automated machines, remote-control and wireless [[remote-control]].", "The term comes from a Slavic root, robot-, with meanings associated with labor. The word robot was first used to denote a fictional humanoid in a 1920 [[Czech language|Czech-language]] play [[Rossums Universal Robots|R.U.R.]] (Rossumovi Univerz\u00e1ln\u00ed Roboti - Rossums Universal Robots) by [[Karel \u010capek]], though it was Karels brother [[Josef \u010capek]] who was the words true inventor. Electronics evolved into the driving force of development with the advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by [[William Grey Walter]] in [[Bristol]], [[England]] in 1948, as well as [[Computer Numerical Control|Computer Numerical Control (CNC)]] machine tools in the late 1940s by [[John T. Parsons]] and [[Frank L. Stulen]]. The first commercial, digital and [[Computer program|programmable]] robot was built by [[George Devol]] in 1954 and was named the [[Unimate]]. It was sold to [[General Motors]] in 1961 where it was used to lift pieces of hot metal from [[die casting]] machines at the [[Inland Fisher Guide Plant (New Jersey)|Inland Fisher Guide Plant]] in the [[West Trenton, New Jersey|West Trenton]] section of [[Ewing Township, New Jersey]].", "Robots have replaced humans in performing repetitive and dangerous tasks which humans prefer not to do, or are unable to do because of size limitations, or which take place in extreme environments such as outer space or the bottom of the sea. There are concerns about the increasing use of robots and their role in society. Robots are blamed for rising [[technological unemployment]] as they replace workers in increasing numbers of functions. The use of robots in military combat raises ethical concerns. The possibilities of robot autonomy and potential repercussions have been addressed in fiction and may be a realistic concern in the future."]}, "main_pages": {"Autonomy and ethical questions": ["Roboethics", "Ethics of artificial intelligence"], "Educational (interactive) robots": ["Educational robotics"], "General-purpose autonomous robots": ["Autonomous robot"], "History": ["History of robots"], "Industrial robots (manipulating)": ["Industrial robot", "Manipulator (device)"], "Military robots": ["Military robot"], "Mobile robot": ["Mobile robot", "Automated guided vehicle"], "Modular robot": ["Self-reconfiguring modular robot "], "Pharmacies": ["Pharmacy automation"], "Reconfigurable robots": ["Self-reconfiguring modular robot"], "Relationship to unemployment": ["Technological unemployment"], "Service robot": ["Service robot"], "Swarm robots": ["Swarm robotics}}Inspired by [[colony (biology)", "colonies of insects]] such as [[ants]] and [[bees]], researchers are modeling the behavior of [[swarm robotics", "swarms]] of thousands of tiny robots which together perform a useful task, such as finding something hidden, cleaning, or spying. Each robot is quite simple, but the [[emergent behavior]] of the swarm is more complex. The whole set of robots can be considered as one single distributed system, in the same way an ant colony can be considered a [[superorganism]], exhibiting [[swarm intelligence]]. The largest swarms so far created include the iRobot swarm, the SRI/MobileRobots CentiBots project and the Open-source Micro-robotic Project swarm, which are being used to research collective behaviors. Swarms are also more resistant to failure. Whereas one large robot may fail and ruin a mission, a swarm can continue even if several robots fail. This could make them attractive for space exploration missions, where failure is normally extremely costl"]}}, "Unmanned aerial vehicle": {"page_content": {"Applications": [], "Autonomy": {"Autonomy features": ["* Self-level: attitude stabilization on the pitch and roll axes.", "* Altitude hold: The aircraft maintains its altitude using barometric pressure and/or GPS data. ", "* Hover/position hold: Keep level pitch and roll, stable yaw heading and altitude while maintaining position using [[GNSS]] or inertal sensors.", "* Headless mode: Pitch control relative to the position of the pilot rather than relative to the vehicles axes. ", "* Care-free: automatic roll and yaw control while moving horizontally", "* Take-off and landing (using a variety of aircraft or ground-based sensors and systems; see also:[[Autoland]])", "* Failsafe: automatic landing or return-to-home upon loss of control signal", "* Return-to-home: Fly back to the point of takeoff (often gaining altitude first to avoid possible intervening obstructions such as trees or buildings).", "* Follow-me: Maintain relative position to a moving pilot or other object using GNSS, [[image recognition]] or homing beacon.", "* GPS waypoint navigation: Using GNSS to navigate to an intermediate location on a travel path.", "* Orbit around an object: Similar to Follow-me but continuously circle a target.", "* Pre-programmed [[aerobatics]] (such as rolls and loops)"], "Basic principles": ["One way to achieve autonomous control employs multiple control-loop layers, as in [[hierarchical control system]]s. As of 2016 the low-layer loops (i.e. for flight control) tick as fast as 32,000 times per second, while higher-level loops may cycle once per second. The principle is to decompose the aircrafts behavior into manageable \"chunks\", or states, with known transitions. Hierarchical control system types range from simple [[scripting language|scripts]] to [[finite-state machine|finite state machines]], [[behavior tree]]s and [[hierarchical task network|hierarchical task planners]]. The most common control mechanism used in these layers is the [[PID controller]] which can be used to achieve hover for a [[quadcopter]] by using data from the [[inertial measurement unit|IMU]] to calculate precise inputs for the electronic speed controllers and motors.", "* Path planning: determining an optimal path for vehicle to follow while meeting mission objectives and constraints, such as obstacles or fuel requirements", "* Trajectory generation ([[motion planning]]): determining control maneuvers to take in order to follow a given path or to go from one location to another", "* Trajectory regulation: constraining a vehicle within some tolerance to a trajectory", "Evolved UAV hierarchical task planners use methods like state [[Tree search algorithm|tree searches]] or [[genetic algorithm]]s."], "first_par": ["ICAO classifies uncrewed aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully autonomous. Actual UAVs may offer intermediate degrees of autonomy. E.g., a vehicle that is remotely piloted in most contexts may have an autonomous return-to-base operation.", "Basic autonomy comes from proprioceptive sensors. Advanced autonomy calls for situational awareness, knowledge about the environment surrounding the aircraft from exterioceptive sensors: [[sensor fusion]] integrates information from multiple sensors."]}, "Classification": ["* Combat \u2013 providing attack capability for high-risk missions (see: [[Unmanned combat aerial vehicle|unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV)]] and [[loitering munition]] aka suicide drone).", "* Reconnaissance \u2013 [[Unmanned reconnaissance aerial vehicle]] providing battlefield intelligence.", "* Target and decoy \u2013 providing ground and aerial gunnery a target that simulates an enemy aircraft or missile.", "* Logistics \u2013 delivering cargo.", "* Civil and commercial UAVs \u2013 agriculture, aerial photography, data collection.", "* Research and development \u2013 improve UAV technologies.", "The [[U.S. Military UAV tier system]] is used by military planners to designate the various individual aircraft elements in an overall usage plan.", "* Hand-held altitude, about 2 km range", "* Close altitude, up to 10 km range", "* NATO type altitude, up to 50 km range", "* Tactical altitude, about 160 km range", "* [[Medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle|MALE (medium altitude, long endurance)]] up to and range over 200 km", "* [[High-Altitude Long Endurance|HALE (high altitude, long endurance)]] over and indefinite range", "* Hypersonic high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1\u20135) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) or suborbital altitude, range over 200 km", "* Orbital low earth orbit (Mach 25+)", "* CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer", "* Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System (CACGS) for UAVs", "* Hobbyist UAVs \u2013 which can be further divided into", "** Ready-to-fly (RTF)/Commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS)", "** Bind-and-fly (BNF) \u2013 require minimum knowledge to fly the platform", "** Almost-ready-to-fly (ARF)/Do-it-yourself (DIY) require significant knowledge to get in the air", "** Bare frame \u2013 requires significant knowledge and your own parts to get it in the air", "* Midsize military and commercial UAVs", "* Large military-specific UAVs", "* Stealth combat UAVs", "* Crewed aircraft transformed into uncrewed (and Optionally Piloted UAVS or OPVs)", "* [[Micro air vehicle]] (MAV) \u2013 the smallest UAVs that can weigh less than 1g", "* Miniature UAV (also called SUAS) approximately less than 25 kg", "* Heavier UAVs"], "Components": {"Actuators": ["UAV [[actuator]]s include [[Electronic speed control|digital electronic speed controllers]] (which control the [[Revolutions per minute|RPM]] of the motors) linked to motors/[[engine]]s and [[propeller]]s, [[servomotor]]s (for planes and helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers."], "Body": ["The primary difference for planes is the absence of the cockpit area and its windows. Tailless quadcopters are a common form factor for rotary wing UAVs while tailed mono- and bi-copters are common for crewed platforms."], "Communications": ["Most UAVs use a [[radio]] for remote control and [[Data link|exchange of video and other data]]. Early UAVs had only [[narrowband]] uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi-directional narrowband radio links carried command and control (C&C) and [[telemetry]] data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator. For very long range flights, military UAVs also use [[satellite]] receivers as part of [[satellite navigation]] systems. In cases when video transmission was required, the UAVs will implement a separate analog video radio link.", "In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having 2 separate links for C&C, telemetry and video traffic, a [[broadband]] link is used to carry all types of data on a single radio link. These broadband links can leverage [[quality of service]] techniques to optimize the C&C traffic for low latency. Usually, these broadband links carry [[TCP/IP]] traffic that can be routed over the Internet.", "* Ground control \u2013 a human operating a [[Transmitter|radio transmitter]]/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a computer, or the original meaning of a [[UAV ground control station|military ground control station (GCS)]]. Recently control from [[Wearable technology|wearable devices]], human movement recognition, [[Electroencephalography|human brain waves]] was also demonstrated.", "* Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some [[Armed forces|military powers]]. Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets, while direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in trials.", "* Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station military manned-unmanned teaming (MUM-T).", "* A protocol [[MAVLink]] is increasingly becoming popular to carry command and control data between the ground control and the vehicle", "As mobile networks have increased in performance and reliability over the years, drones have begun to use mobile networks for communication. Mobile networks can be used for drone tracking, remote piloting, over the air updates, and cloud computing.", "Channel 4 subtone 4 of [[PMR446]] (walkie-talkie) is reserved for voice communication among pilots.", "Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include optimizations. The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using ultra-reliable and low-latency communications."], "Computing": ["UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology, beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then [[System on a chip|system-on-a-chip]] (SOC) and [[single-board computer]]s (SBC).", "System hardware for small UAVs is often called the flight controller (FC), flight controller board (FCB) or autopilot."], "Flight controls": ["UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or landing/perching on inclined surfaces, and then to climb toward better communication spots. Some UAVs can control flight with varying flight modelisation, such as VTOL designs.", "UAVs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface."], "Loop principles": ["UAVs employ open-loop, closed-loop or hybrid control architectures.", "* [[Open-loop controller|Open loop]] This type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, right, up, down) without incorporating feedback from sensor data.", "* [[Closed-loop transfer function|Closed loop]] This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet). The [[PID controller]] is common. Sometimes, [[Feed forward (control)|feedforward]] is employed, transferring the need to close the loop further."], "Power supply and platform": ["Small UAVs mostly use [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium-polymer batteries]] (Li-Po), while larger vehicles often rely on conventional airplane engines or a [[hydrogen fuel cell]]. Scale or size of aircraft is not the defining or limiting characteristic of energy supply for a UAV. The energy density of modern Li-Po batteries is far less than gasoline or hydrogen. The record of travel for a UAV (built from balsa wood and mylar skin) across the North Atlantic Ocean is held by a gasoline model airplane or UAV. Manard Hill in \"in 2003 when one of his creations flew 1,882 miles across the Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel\" holds this record. See: Electric power is used as less work is required for a flight and electric motors are quieter. Also, properly designed, the thrust to weight ratio for an electric or gasoline motor driving a propeller can hover or climb vertically. Botmite airplane is an example of an electric UAV that can climb vertically.", "[[Battery eliminator circuit|Battery elimination circuitry]] (BEC) is used to centralize power distribution and often harbors a [[Microcontroller|microcontroller unit]] (MCU). Costlier switching BECs diminish heating on the platform."], "Sensors": ["Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external states.", "Non-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.", "Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board: 6 DOF implies 3-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical [[inertial measurement unit]] IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver."], "Software": ["UAV software called the flight stack or autopilot. The purpose of the flight stack is to obtain data from sensors, control motors to ensure UAV stability, and facilitate ground control and mission planning communication.", "UAVs are [[Real-time computing|real-time]] systems that require rapid response to changing sensor data. As a result, UAVs rely on single-board computers for their computational needs. Examples of such single-board computers include [[Raspberry Pi]]s, [[BeagleBoard|Beagleboards]], etc. shielded with [[NavIO]], [[PXFMini]], etc. or designed from scratch such as [[NuttX]], preemptive-[[RT Linux]], [[Xenomai]], [[Orocos-Robot Operating System]] or [[DDS-ROS 2.0]].", "* [[ArduCopter]]", "* CrazyFlie", "* [[KKMultiCopter]]", "* [[MultiWii]]", "** [[BaseFlight]] (forked from MultiWii)", "*** [[CleanFlight]] (forked from BaseFlight)", "**** [[BetaFlight]] (forked from CleanFlight)", "**** [[iNav]] (forked from CleanFlight)", "**** [[RaceFlight]] (forked from CleanFlight)", "* [[OpenPilot]]", "** [[dRonin]] (forked from OpenPilot)", "** [[LibrePilot]] (forked from OpenPilot)", "** [[TauLabs]] (forked from OpenPilot)", "* [[Paparazzi Project|Paparazzi]]", "* [[PX4_autopilot]]", "** [[DroneCode]] (Umbrella organization managing PX4 within the [[Linux Foundation]])", "Due to the open-source nature of UAV software, they can be customized to fit specific applications. For example, researchers from the Technical University of Ko\u0161ice have replaced the default control algorithm of the PX4 autopilot. This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number of different open-source stacks, some of which are forked from others, such as CleanFlight, which is forked from BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked from."], "first_par": ["Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical components. The main exceptions are the [[cockpit]] and [[Environmental control system (aircraft)|environmental control system]] or [[life support system]]s. Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult human, and as a result, can be considerably smaller. Though they carry heavy payloads, weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed counterparts with comparable armaments.", "Small civilian UAVs have no [[life-critical system]]s, and can thus be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems. For small UAVs, the [[quadcopter]] design has become popular, though this layout is rarely used for crewed aircraft. Miniaturization means that less-powerful propulsion technologies can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft, such as small electric motors and batteries.", "Control systems for UAVs are often different than crewed craft. For remote human control, a camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radio-transmitted digital commands replace physical cockpit controls. [[Autopilot]] software is used on both crewed and uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets."]}, "Development considerations": {"Animal imitation \u2013 ethology": ["Flapping-wing [[ornithopter]]s, imitating birds or insects, are a research field in [[Micro air vehicle|microUAVs]]. Their inherent stealth recommends them for spy missions.", "The Nano Hummingbird is commercially available, while sub-1g microUAVs inspired by flies, albeit using a power tether, can \"land\" on vertical surfaces.", "Other projects include uncrewed \"beetles\" and other insects.", "Research is exploring miniature optic-flow sensors, called [[ocellis]], mimicking the compound insect eyes formed from multiple facets, which can transmit data to [[neuromorphic chips]] able to treat optic flow as well as light intensity discrepancies."], "Endurance": ["UAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot.", "Because of their small size, low weight, low vibration and high power to weight ratio, [[Wankel rotary engines]] are used in many large UAVs. Their engine rotors cannot seize; the engine is not susceptible to shock-cooling during descent and it does not require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power. These attributes reduce fuel usage, increasing range or payload.", "Proper drone cooling is essential for long-term drone endurance. Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the most common cause of drone failure.", "[[Hydrogen fuel cells]], using hydrogen power, may be able to extend the endurance of small UAVs, up to several hours.", "Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping-wing UAVs, followed by planes and multirotors standing last, due to lower [[Reynolds number]].", "Solar-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974, have achieved flight times of several weeks.", "Solar-powered atmospheric satellites (\"atmosats\") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than [[low earth orbit]] satellites. Likely applications include [[weather monitoring]], [[disaster recovery]], [[earth imaging]] and communications.", "Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutions.", "Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to \"stare\" at a battlefield for a long interval (ARGUS-IS, Gorgon Stare, Integrated Sensor Is Structure) to record events that could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities."], "Reliability": ["Reliability improvements target all aspects of UAV systems, using [[Resilience (engineering and construction)|resilience engineering]] and [[fault tolerance]] techniques.", "Individual reliability covers robustness of flight controllers, to ensure safety without excessive redundancy to minimize cost and weight. Besides, dynamic assessment of [[flight envelope]] allows damage-resilient UAVs, using [[Nonlinear system|non-linear analysis]] with ad hoc designed loops or neural networks. UAV software liability is bending toward the design and certifications of [[avionics software|crewed avionics software]].", "Swarm resilience involves maintaining operational capabilities and reconfiguring tasks given unit failures."]}, "Events": [], "Existing UAVs": ["UAVs are being developed and deployed by many countries around the world. Due to their wide proliferation, no comprehensive list of UAV systems exists.", "The export of UAVs or technology capable of carrying a 500 kg payload at least 300 km is restricted in many countries by the [[Missile Technology Control Regime]]."], "Functions": {"Reactive autonomy": ["Reactive autonomy, such as collective flight, real-time [[Collision avoidance system|collision avoidance]], wall following and corridor centring, relies on telecommunication and [[Situation awareness|situational awareness]] provided by range sensors: [[Optical flow|optic flow]], [[lidar]]s (light radars), [[radar]]s, [[sonar]]s.", "Most range sensors analyze electromagnetic radiation, reflected off the environment and coming to the sensor. The cameras (for visual flow) act as simple receivers. Lidars, radars and sonars (with sound mechanical waves) emit and receive waves, measuring the round-trip transit time. UAV cameras do not require emitting power, reducing total consumption.", "Radars and sonars are mostly used for military applications.", "Reactive autonomy has in some forms already reached consumer markets: it may be widely available in less than a decade."], "Simultaneous localization and mapping": {"= Future military potential": ["In the military sector, American [[Predator Plane|Predators]] and [[General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper|Reapers]] are made for [[counterterrorism]] operations and in war zones in which the enemy lacks sufficient firepower to shoot them down. They are not designed to withstand [[Anti-aircraft warfare|antiaircraft defenses]] or [[air-to-air combat]]. In September 2013, the chief of the US [[Air Combat Command]] stated that current UAVs were \"useless in a contested environment\" unless crewed aircraft were there to protect them. A 2012 [[Congressional Research Service]] (CRS) report speculated that in the future, UAVs may be able to perform tasks beyond intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance and strikes; the CRS report listed air-to-air combat (\"a more difficult future task\") as possible future undertakings. The Department of Defenses Unmanned Systems Integrated Roadmap FY2013-2038 foresees a more important place for UAVs in combat. Issues include extended capabilities, human-UAV interaction, managing increased information flux, increased autonomy and developing UAV-specific munitions. [[DARPA]]s project of systems of systems, or [[General Atomics]] work may augur future warfare scenarios, the latter disclosing [[General Atomics Avenger|Avenger]] swarms equipped with [[High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System]] (HELLADS)."], "Cognitive radio": ["[[Cognitive radio]] technology may have UAV applications."], "Learning capabilities": ["UAVs may exploit [[Artificial neural network|distributed neural networks]]."], "Swarming": ["[[Swarm robotics|Robot swarming]] refers to networks of agents able to dynamically reconfigure as elements leave or enter the network. They provide greater flexibility than multi-agent cooperation. Swarming may open the path to data fusion. Some [[bio-inspired robotics|bio-inspired]] flight swarms use steering behaviors and flocking."], "first_par": ["[[Simultaneous localization and mapping|SLAM]] combines [[odometry]] and external data to represent the world and the position of the UAV in it in three dimensions. High-altitude outdoor navigation does not require large vertical fields-of-view and can rely on GPS coordinates (which makes it simple mapping rather than SLAM).", "Two related research fields are [[photogrammetry]] and LIDAR, especially in low-altitude and indoor 3D environments.", "* Indoor photogrammetric and [[Photogrammetry|stereophotogrammetric]] SLAM has been demonstrated with quadcopters.", "* Lidar platforms with heavy, costly and gimbaled traditional laser platforms are proven. Research attempts to address production cost, 2D to 3D expansion, power-to-range ratio, weight and dimensions. [[LED]] range-finding applications are commercialized for low-distance sensing capabilities. Research investigates hybridization between light emission and computing power: [[Phased-array optics|phased array]] [[spatial light modulator]]s, and [[Frequency Modulated Continuous-wave radar|frequency-modulated-continuous-wave]] (FMCW) [[Microelectromechanical systems|MEMS]]-tunable [[vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser]]s (VCSELs)."]}, "first_par": [" Medium levels of autonomy, such as reactive autonomy and high levels using cognitive autonomy, have already been achieved to some extent and are very active research fields."]}, "History": ["The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred in July 1849, serving as a [[balloon carrier]] (the precursor to the [[aircraft carrier]]) in the first offensive use of [[air power]] in [[naval aviation]]. Austrian forces besieging Venice attempted to launch some 200 [[incendiary balloon]]s at the besieged city. The balloons were launched mainly from land; however, some were also launched from the Austrian ship. At least one bomb fell in the city; however, due to the wind changing after launch, most of the balloons missed their target, and some drifted back over Austrian lines and the launching ship Vulcano.", "UAV innovations started in the early 1900s, and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel. UAV development continued during [[World War I]], when the [[Dayton-Wright Airplane Company]] invented a pilotless [[aerial torpedo]] that would explode at a preset time.", "The earliest attempt at a powered UAV was [[Archibald Low|A. M. Low]]s \"Aerial Target\" in 1916. Low confirmed that Geoffrey de Havilland\u2019s monoplane was the one that flew under control on 21 March 1917 using his radio system. Other [[British unmanned aerial vehicles of World War I|British unmanned developments]] followed during and after World War I leading to the fleet of over 400 [[de Havilland Tiger Moth|de Havilland 82 Queen Bee]] aerial targets that went into service in 1935.", "[[Nikola Tesla]] described a fleet of uncrewed aerial combat vehicles in 1915. These developments also inspired the construction of the [[Kettering Bug]] by [[Charles Kettering]] from [[Dayton, Ohio]] and the [[Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane]]. Initially meant as an uncrewed plane that would carry an explosive payload to a predetermined target. The first scaled remote piloted vehicle was developed by film star and [[model-airplane]] enthusiast [[Reginald Denny (actor)|Reginald Denny]] in 1935. In 1940 Denny started the [[Radioplane Company]] and more models emerged during [[World War II]] used both to train antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack missions. [[Nazi Germany]] produced and used various UAV aircraft during the war, like the [[Argus As 292]] and the [[V-1 flying bomb]] with a [[jet engine]]. After World War II the development continued in vehicles such as the American [[JB-4]] (using television/radio-command guidance), the Australian [[GAF Jindivik]] and [[Ryan Aeronautical|Teledyne Ryan]] [[Ryan Firebee|Firebee I]] of 1951, while companies like [[Beechcraft]] offered their [[Beechcraft MQM-61 Cardinal|Model 1001]] for the [[U.S. Navy]] in 1955. Nevertheless, they were little more than remote-controlled airplanes until the [[Vietnam War]].", "In 1959, the [[U.S. Air Force]], concerned about losing pilots over hostile territory, began planning for the use of uncrewed aircraft. Planning intensified after the [[Soviet Union]] [[1960 U-2 incident|shot down a U-2]] in 1960. Within days, a highly [[classified information|classified]] UAV program started under the code name of \"Red Wagon\". The August 1964 [[Tonkin Gulf Incident|clash in the Tonkin Gulf]] between naval units of the U.S. and [[North Vietnamese Navy]] initiated Americas highly classified UAVs ([[Ryan Model 147]], [[Ryan AQM-91 Firefly]], [[Lockheed D-21]]) into their first combat missions of the [[Vietnam War]]. When the Chinese government showed photographs of downed U.S. UAVs via Wide World Photos, the official U.S. response was \"no comment\".", "During the [[War of Attrition]] (1967\u20131970) the first tactical UAVs installed with [[reconnaissance]] cameras were first tested by the Israeli intelligence, successfully bringing photos from across the Suez canal. This was the first time that tactical UAVs that could be launched and landed on any short runway (unlike the heavier jet-based UAVs) were developed and tested in battle.", "In the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[Israel]] used UAVs as decoys to spur opposing forces into wasting expensive anti-aircraft missiles. After the 1973 Yom Kippur war, a few key people from the team that developed this early UAV joined a small startup company that aimed to develop UAVs into a commercial product, eventually purchased by Tadiran and leading to the development of the first Israeli UAV.", "In 1973, the U.S. military officially confirmed that they had been using UAVs in Southeast Asia (Vietnam). Over 5,000 U.S. airmen had been killed and over 1,000 more were [[Missing In Action|missing]] or [[POW|captured]]. The USAF [[100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing]] flew about 3,435 UAV missions during the war at a cost of about 554 UAVs lost to all causes. In the words of USAF [[General]] [[George S. Brown]], Commander, [[Air Force Systems Command]], in 1972, \"The only reason we need (UAVs) is that we dont want to needlessly expend the man in the cockpit.\" Later that year, General [[John C. Meyer]], Commander in Chief, [[Strategic Air Command]], stated, \"we let the drone do the high-risk flying... the loss rate is high, but we are willing to risk more of them...they save lives!\"", "During the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], Soviet-supplied [[surface-to-air missile]] batteries in [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] caused heavy damage to Israeli [[fighter jet]]s. As a result, Israel developed the [[IAI Scout]] as the first UAV with real-time surveillance. The images and radar decoys provided by these UAVs helped Israel to [[Operation Mole Cricket 19|completely neutralize]] the Syrian [[air defense]]s at the start of the [[1982 Lebanon War]], resulting in no pilots downed. The first time UAVs were used as proof-of-concept of super-agility post-stall controlled flight in combat-flight simulations involved tailless, stealth technology-based, three-dimensional thrust vectoring flight control, jet-steering UAVs in Israel in 1987.", "With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies in the 1980s and 1990s, interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the U.S. military. In the 1990s, the U.S. DoD gave a contract to [[AAI Corporation]] along with Israeli company Malat. The U.S. Navy bought the AAI Pioneer UAV that AAI and Malat developed jointly. Many of these UAVs saw service in the [[1991 Gulf War]]. UAVs demonstrated the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting machines, deployable without risk to aircrews. Initial generations primarily involved [[surveillance aircraft]], but [[unmanned combat air vehicle|some carried armaments]], such as the [[General Atomics MQ-1 Predator]], that launched [[AGM-114 Hellfire]] [[air-to-ground missile]]s.", "[[CAPECON project|CAPECON]] was a [[European Union]] project to develop UAVs, running from 1 May 2002 to 31 December 2005.", "As of 2012, the USAF employed 7,494 UAVs almost one in three USAF aircraft. The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] [[Use of UAVs by the CIA|also operated UAVs]].", "In 2013 at least 50 countries used UAVs. China, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, Turkey, and others designed and built their own varieties."], "Market": {"Agriculture": ["As global demand for food production grows exponentially, resources are depleted, farmland is reduced, and agricultural labor is increasingly in short supply, there is an urgent need for more convenient and smarter agricultural solutions than traditional methods, and the agricultural drone and robotics industry is expected to make progress. Agricultural drones have been used in areas such as Africa to help build sustainable agriculture."], "Civilian": ["The civilian drone market is dominated by Chinese companies. Chinese drone manufacturer [[DJI (company)|DJI]] alone had 74% of civilian-market share in 2018, with no other company accounting for more than 5%, and with $11 billion forecast global sales in 2020. Following increased scrutiny of its activities, the US Interior Department grounded its fleet of DJI drones in 2020, while the Justice Department prohibited the use of federal funds for the purchase of DJI and other foreign made UAVs. DJI is followed by Chinese company [[Yuneec International|Yuneec]], US company [[3D Robotics]] and French company [[Parrot SA|Parrot]] with a significant gap in market share. As of March 2018, more than one million UAVs (878,000 hobbyist and 122,000 commercial) were registered with the U.S. FAA. 2018 NPD point to consumers increasingly purchasing drones with more advanced features with 33 percent growth in both the $500+ and $1000+ market segments.", "The civilian UAV market is relatively new compared to the military one. Companies are emerging in both developed and developing nations at the same time. Many early stage startups have received support and funding from investors as is the case in the United States and by government agencies as is the case in India. Some universities offer research and training programs or degrees. Private entities also provide online and in-person training programs for both recreational and commercial UAV use.", "Consumer drones are also widely used by military organizations worldwide because of the cost-effective nature of consumer product. In 2018, Israeli military started to use [[DJI (company)|DJI]] [[Mavic (UAV)|Mavic]] and Matrice series of UAV for light reconnaissance mission since the civilian drones are easier to use and have higher reliability. DJI drones is also the most widely used commercial unmanned aerial system that the US Army has employed. DJI surveillance drones have also been used by Chinese police in [[Xinjiang]] since 2017.", "The global UAV market will reach US$21.47 billion, with the Indian market touching the US$885.7 million mark, by 2021.", "Lighted drones are beginning to be used in nighttime [[Drone display|displays]] for artistic and advertising purposes."], "Law enforcement": ["[[Police]] can use drones for applications such as [[search and rescue]] and [[traffic monitoring]]."], "Military": ["As of 2020, seventeen countries have armed UAVs, and more than 100 countries use UAVs in a military capacity. The global military UAV market is dominated by companies based in the United States and Israel. By sale numbers, The US held over 60% military-market share in 2017. Four of top five military UAV manufactures are American including [[General Atomics]], [[Lockheed Martin]], [[Northrop Grumman]] and [[Boeing]], followed by the Chinese company [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]. Israel companies mainly focus on small surveillance UAV system and by quantity of drones, Israel exported 60.7% (2014) of UAV on the market while the United States export 23.9% (2014); top importers of military UAV are The United Kingdom (33.9%) and India (13.2%). United States alone operated over 9,000 military UAVs in 2014. General Atomics is the dominant manufacturer with the Global Hawk and Predator/Mariner systems product-line."], "Transport": ["The [[Aerospace Industries Association|AIA]] reports large cargo and passengers drones should be certified and introduced over the next 20 years.", "Sensor-carrying large drones are expected from 2018; [[short-haul]], low altitude freighters outside cities from 2025; [[long-haul]] cargo flights by the mid-2030s and then passenger flights by 2040.Spending should rise from a few hundred million dollars on [[research and development]] in 2018 to $4 billion by 2028 and $30 billion by 2036."]}, "Regulation": {"Brazil": ["In 2017, the National Civil Aviation Agency (ANAC) regulated the operation of drones through the Brazilian Special Civil Aviation Regulation No. 94/2017 (RBAC-E No. 94/2017). ANACs regulation complements the drone operating rules established by the Airspace Control Department (DECEA) and the National Telecommunications Agency (ANATEL)."], "Canada": ["In 2016, [[Transport Canada]] proposed the implementation of new regulations that would require all UAVs over 250 grams to be registered and insured and that operators would be required to be a minimum age and pass an exam in order to get a license. Revised regulations are in effect as of June 2019."], "Ireland": ["The [[Irish Aviation Authority]] (IAA) requires all UAVs over 1 kg to be registered with UAVs weighing 4 kg or more requiring a license to be issued by the IAA."], "Italy": ["The ENAC (Ente Nazionale per lAviazione Civile), that is, the [[Italian Civil Aviation Authority]] for technical regulation, certification, supervision and control in the field of civil aviation, issued on 31 May 2016 a very detailed regulation for all UAV, determining which types of vehicles can be used, where, for which purposes, and who can control them. The regulation deals with the usage of UAV for either commercial and recreational use. The last version was published on 22 December 2016."], "Japan": ["In 2015, [[Civil Aviation Bureau]] in [[Japan]] announced that \"UA/Drone\" (refers to any airplane, rotorcraft, glider or airship which cannot accommodate any person on board and can be remotely or automatically piloted) should (A) not fly near or above airports, (B) not fly over 150 meter above ground/water surface, (C) not fly over [[urban area]] and [[suburb]] (so only [[rural area]] is allowed.) UA/drone should be operated manually and at Visual Line of Sight (VLOS) and so on. UA/drone should not fly near any important buildings or facilities of the country including nuclear facilities. UA/drone must follow the Japan Radio Act exactly."], "Mexico": [", the [[Norma Oficial Mexicana]] [http://www.sct.gob.mx/fileadmin/DireccionesGrales/DGAC-archivo/modulo2/nom-107-sct3-2019-201119.pdf NOM-107-SCT3-2019] and the [http://www.sct.gob.mx/fileadmin/DireccionesGrales/DGAC-archivo/modulo3/co-av-23-10-r4.pdf CO AV-23/10 R4] memorandum regulate the use of UAVs, or \"remotely piloted aircraft\", in Mexico."], "Netherlands": [", the [[Law enforcement in the Netherlands|Dutch police]] are testing trained [[bald eagle]]s to [[Interceptor aircraft|intercept]] offending UAVs."], "South Africa": ["In April 2014, the [[South African Civil Aviation Authority]] announced that it would clamp down on the illegal flying of UAVs in South African airspace. \"Hobby drones\" with a weight of less than 7 kg at altitudes up to 500m with restricted visual line-of-sight below the height of the highest obstacle within 300m of the UAV are allowed. No license is required for such vehicles."], "United Arab Emirates": ["In order to fly a drone in Dubai, citizens have to obtain a no objection certificate from Dubai Civil Aviation Authority (DCAA). This certificate can be obtained online."], "United Kingdom": ["As of December 2018, UAVs of or less must fly within the operators eyesight. In built up areas, UAVs must be away from people and cannot be flown over large crowds or built up areas.", "In July 2018, it became illegal to fly a UAV over and to fly within of aircraft, airports and airfields.", "As of 30 November 2019, anyone flying a drone between 250 grams and 20 kilograms in weight is required to register with the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). Pilots require a Flyer ID, and those in control of the drone require an Operator ID. Regulations apply to both hobbyist and professional users."], "United States": {"Commercial use": ["On 21 June 2016, the Federal Aviation Administration announced regulations for commercial operation of small UAS craft (sUAS), those between 0.55 and 55 pounds (about 250 gm to 25 kg) including payload. The rules, which exclude hobbyists, require the presence at all operations of a licensed Remote Pilot in Command. Certification of this position, available to any citizen at least 16 years of age, is obtained solely by passing a written test and then submitting an application. For those holding a sport pilot license or higher, and with a current flight review, a rule-specific exam can be taken at no charge online at the faasafety.gov website. Other applicants must take a more comprehensive examination at an aeronautical testing center. All licensees are required to take a review course every two years. At this time no ratings for heavier UAS are available.", "Commercial operation by right was restricted to daylight, line-of-sight, under 100 mph, under 400 feet, and [[Airspace class (United States)#Class G|Class G airspace]] only, and may not fly over people or be operated from a moving vehicle. Some organizations have obtained a waiver or Certificate of Authorization that allows them to exceed these rules. On 20 September 2018, [[State Farm Insurance]], in partnership with the [[Virginia Tech Mid-Atlantic Aviation Partnership]] and [[FAA Integration Pilot Program]], became the first in the United States to fly a UAV Beyond-Visual-Line-Of-Sight (BVLOS) and over people under an FAA Part 107 Waiver. The flight was made at the Virginia Tech Kentland Farms outside the Blacksburg campus with an SenseFly eBee vehicle, Pilot-In-Command was Christian Kang, a State Farm Weather Catastrophe Claims Services employee (Part 107 & 61 pilot). Additionally, CNNs waiver for UAVs modified for injury prevention to fly over people, while other waivers allow night flying with special lighting, or non-line-of-sight operations for agriculture or railroad track inspection. This, in short, means Part 107 operators will be able to operate drones commercially over people and at night without obtaining a waiver from the FAA.", "Previous to this announcement, any commercial use required a full pilots license and an FAA waiver, of which hundreds had been granted.", "In preparation for higher volumes of drone traffic, the FAA finalized the [[Remote ID]] regulation in December 2020, giving manufacturers 18 months and operators 30 months to comply with the requirement for self-identification transmissions outside of designated areas. At the same time, the FAA added a Operations Over People and at Night rule to Part 107. Nighttime operations require anti-collision lights and additional pilot training. For flight over people or moving vehicles, drones are put into four categories depending on capability of injury to people, with the least restricted category having a full Part 21 airworthiness certificate."], "Government use": ["The use of UAVs for law-enforcement purposes is regulated at a state level.", "In Oregon, law enforcement is allowed to operate non-weaponized drones without a warrant if there is enough reason to believe that the current environment poses imminent danger to which the drone can acquire information or assist individuals. Otherwise, a warrant, with a maximum period of 30 days of interaction, must be acquired."], "Recreational use": ["From 21 December 2015, all hobby type UAVs between 250 grams and 25 kilograms needed to be registered with FAA no later than 19 February 2016.", "* All drones must be registered, except those that weigh.55 pounds or less (less than 250 grams) and are flown exclusively under the Exception for Recreational Flyers.", "* If the owner is less than 13 years old, a parent or other responsible person must do the FAA registration.", "* UAVs must be marked with the FAA-issued registration number.", "* The registration fee is $5. The registration is good for 3 years and can be renewed for an additional 3 years at the $5 rate.", "* A single registration applies to all UAVs owned by an individual. Failure to register can result in civil penalties of up to $27,500 and criminal penalties of up to $250,000 and/or imprisonment for up to three years.", "On 19 May 2017, in the case Taylor v. Huerta, the [[U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] held that the FAAs 2015 drone registration rules were in violation of the 2012 [[FAA Modernization and Reform Act]]. Under the courts holding, although commercial drone operators are required to register, recreational operators are not. On 25 May 2017, one week after the Taylor decision, Senator [[Dianne Feinstein]] introduced S. 1272, the [[Drone Federalism Act of 2017]], in Congress."]}, "first_par": ["Ethical concerns and UAV-related accidents have driven nations to regulate the use of UAVs."]}, "Safety and security": {"Air traffic": ["UAVs can threaten airspace security in numerous ways, including unintentional collisions or other interference with other aircraft, deliberate attacks or by distracting pilots or flight controllers. The first incident of a drone-airplane collision occurred in mid-October 2017 in Quebec City, Canada. The first recorded instance of a drone collision with a [[hot air balloon]] occurred on 10 August 2018 in [[Driggs, Idaho]], United States; although there was no significant damage to the balloon nor any injuries to its 3 occupants, the balloon pilot reported the incident to the [[NTSB]], stating that \"I hope this incident helps create a conversation of respect for nature, the airspace, and rules and regulations\". In recent events UAVs flying into or near airports shutting them down for long periods of time.", "Regulatory bodies around the world are developing [[Unmanned aircraft system traffic management]] solutions to better integrate UAVs into airspace."], "Counter unmanned air system": ["The malicious use of UAVs has led to the development of [[Anti-aircraft warfare#Anti-UAV defences|counter unmanned air system]] (C-UAS) technologies such as the Aaronia [[AARTOS]] which have been installed on major international airports. Anti-aircraft missile systems, such as the [[Iron Dome]] are also being enhanced with C-UAS technologies."], "Malicious use": ["UAVs could be loaded with dangerous payloads, and crashed into vulnerable targets. Payloads could include explosives, chemical, radiologial or biological hazards. UAVs with generally non-lethal payloads could possibly be hacked and put to malicious purposes. Anti-UAV systems are being developed by states to counter this threat. This is, however, proving difficult. As Dr J. Rogers stated in an interview to A&T \"There is a big debate out there at the moment about what the best way is to counter these small UAVs, whether they are used by hobbyists causing a bit of a nuisance or in a more sinister manner by a terrorist actor\".", "By 2017, drones were being used to drop contraband into prisons. Drones caused [[Gatwick Airport drone incident|significant disruption at Gatwick Airport during December 2018]], needing the deployment of the British Army."], "Security vulnerabilities": ["The interest in UAVs cyber security has been raised greatly after the Predator UAV video stream hijacking incident in 2009, where Islamic militants used cheap, off-the-shelf equipment to stream video feeds from a UAV. Another risk is the possibility of hijacking or jamming a UAV in flight. Several security researchers have made public some vulnerabilities in commercial UAVs, in some cases even providing full source code or tools to reproduce their attacks. At a workshop on UAVs and privacy in October 2016, researchers from the [[Federal Trade Commission]] showed they were able to hack into three different consumer [[quadcopter]]s and noted that UAV manufacturers can make their UAVs more secure by the basic security measures of encrypting the Wi-Fi signal and adding password protection."], "Wildfires": ["In the United States, flying close to a wildfire is punishable by a maximum $25,000 fine. Nonetheless, in 2014 and 2015, firefighting air support in California was hindered on several occasions, including at the [[Lake Fire]] and the [[North Fire]]. In response, California legislators introduced a bill that would allow firefighters to disable UAVs which invaded restricted airspace. The FAA later required registration of most UAVs.", "The use of UAVs is also being investigated to help detect and fight wildfires, whether through observation or launching pyrotechnic devices to start [[Controlled burn|backfires]]."]}, "Terminology": ["Multiple terms are used for unmanned aerial vehicles, generally referring to the same concept.", "The term drone, more widely used by the public, was coined about the early remotely-flown target [[aircraft]] used for practice firing of a battleships guns, and the term was first used with the 1920s [[Fairey III|Fairey Queen]] and 1930s [[De Havilland Tiger Moth#Gunnery target drone|de Havilland Queen Bee]] target aircraft. These two were followed in service by the similarly-named [[Airspeed Queen Wasp]] and [[Miles Martinet|Miles Queen Martinet]], before ultimate replacement by the [[GAF Jindivik]].", "The term unmanned aircraft system (UAS) was adopted by the [[United States Department of Defense]] (DoD) and the United States [[Federal Aviation Administration]] in 2005 according to their Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 2005\u20132030. The [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) and the [[Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)|British Civil Aviation Authority]] adopted this term, also used in the European Unions [[SESAR Joint Undertaking|Single-European-Sky (SES) Air-Traffic-Management (ATM) Research]] (SESAR Joint Undertaking) roadmap for 2020. This term emphasizes the importance of elements other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground control stations, data links and other support equipment. A similar term is an unmanned-aircraft vehicle system (UAVS), remotely piloted aerial vehicle (RPAV), remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS). Many similar terms are in use. \"Unoccupied\" and \"uninhabited\" are occasionally used as [[gender-neutral language|gender-neutral alternatives]] to \"unmanned\".", "A UAV is defined as a \"powered, aerial vehicle that does not carry a human operator, uses [[aerodynamic force]]s to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely, can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal or nonlethal payload\". Therefore, [[missile]]s are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a weapon that is not reused, though it is also uncrewed and in some cases remotely guided. That being said, UAV is a term that is commonly applied to military use cases.", "The terms autonomous drone and UAV are often wrongfully used interchangeably. This could stem from the fact that many UAVs are automated, i.e. they carry out automated missions but still rely on human operators. However, an autonomous drone is a \"UAV that can operate without any human intervention\". In other words, autonomous drones take off, carry out missions, and land completely autonomously. Thus, an autonomous drone is a type of UAV but a UAV is not necessarily an autonomous drone.", "As autonomous drones are not piloted by humans, a ground control system, or communications management software, plays a major role in their operations, and thus they are also considered part of a UAS. In addition to the software, autonomous drones also employ a host of advanced technologies that allow them to carry out their missions without human intervention, such as cloud computing, computer vision, artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, and thermal sensors.", "In recent years, autonomous drones have begun to transform various commercial industries as they can fly beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS) while maximizing production, reducing costs and risks, ensuring site safety, security and regulatory compliance, and protecting the human workforce in times of a pandemic. They can also be used for consumer-related missions like package delivery, as demonstrated by [[Amazon Prime Air]], and critical deliveries of health supplies.", "A [[Drone in a Box|Drone-in-a-Box]] (DIB) is an autonomous drone that deploys to carry out a pre-programmed list of missions from and returns to a self-contained landing box that also functions as the drones charging base.", "Under new regulations which came into effect 1 June 2019, the term RPAS (Remotely Piloted Aircraft System) has been adopted by the Canadian Government to mean \"a set of configurable elements consisting of a remotely piloted aircraft, its control station, the command and control links and any other system elements required during flight operation\".", "The relation of UAVs to [[Radio-controlled aircraft|remote controlled model aircraft]] is unclear. UAVs may or may not include model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight; however, the US [[Federal Aviation Administration]] defines any uncrewed flying craft as a UAV regardless of size. For recreational uses, a drone (as opposed to a UAV) is a model aircraft that has first-person video, autonomous capabilities, or both."], "first_par": ["An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) (or uncrewed aerial vehicle, commonly known as a drone) is an [[aircraft]] without a human [[Aircraft pilot|pilot]] on board. UAVs are a component of an [[#Terminology|unmanned aircraft system (UAS)]], which include a UAV, a ground-based controller, and a system of communications between the two. The flight of UAVs may operate with various degrees of [[Vehicular automation|autonomy]]: either under remote control by a human operator or autonomously by onboard computers referred to as an [[autopilot]].", "Compared to crewed aircraft, UAVs were originally used for missions too \"dull, dirty or dangerous\" for humans. While drones originated mostly in military applications, their use is rapidly finding many more applications including [[aerial photography]], [[Delivery drone|product deliveries]], [[agricultural drone|agriculture]], policing and surveillance, infrastructure inspections, science, smuggling, and [[drone racing]]."]}, "main_pages": {"Applications": ["List of unmanned aerial vehicle applications"], "Events": ["List of UAV-related incidents"], "Existing UAVs": ["List of unmanned aerial vehicles"], "History": ["History of unmanned aerial vehicles"], "Ireland": ["Regulation of UAVs in the Republic of Ireland"], "Military": ["Unmanned combat aerial vehicle"], "Regulation": ["Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles"], "United Kingdom": ["Regulation of UAVs in the United Kingdom"], "United States": ["Regulation of UAVs in the United States"]}}, "Space exploration": {"page_content": {"Future of space exploration": {"Artemis program": ["The Artemis program is an ongoing [[List of human spaceflight programs|crewed spaceflight program]] carried out by [[NASA]], U.S. [[Private spaceflight|commercial spaceflight companies]], and international partners such as [[European Space Agency|ESA]], with the goal of landing \"the first woman and the next man\" on the Moon, specifically at the [[lunar south pole]] region by 2024. Artemis would be the next step towards the long-term goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon, laying the foundation for private companies to build a lunar economy, and eventually sending humans to [[Mars]].", "In 2017, the lunar campaign was authorized by [[NASA#Space Policy Directive 1|Space Policy Directive 1]], utilizing various ongoing spacecraft programs such as [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]], the [[Lunar Gateway]], [[Commercial Lunar Payload Services]], and adding an undeveloped crewed lander. The [[Space Launch System]] will serve as the primary launch vehicle for Orion, while commercial launch vehicles are planned for use to launch various other elements of the campaign. NASA requested $1.6 billion in additional funding for Artemis for fiscal year 2020, while the Senate Appropriations Committee requested from NASA a five-year budget profile which is needed for evaluation and approval by [[United States Congress|Congress]]."], "Asteroids": ["An article in science magazine [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] suggested the use of asteroids as a gateway for space exploration, with the ultimate destination being Mars. In order to make such an approach viable, three requirements need to be fulfilled: first, \"a thorough asteroid survey to find thousands of nearby bodies suitable for astronauts to visit\"; second, \"extending flight duration and distance capability to ever-increasing ranges out to Mars\"; and finally, \"developing better robotic vehicles and tools to enable astronauts to explore an asteroid regardless of its size, shape or spin.\" Furthermore, using asteroids would provide astronauts with protection from galactic cosmic rays, with mission crews being able to land on them without great risk to radiation exposure."], "Breakthrough Starshot": ["Breakthrough Starshot is a research and engineering project by the [[Breakthrough Initiatives]] to develop a proof-of-concept fleet of [[light sail]] spacecraft named StarChip, to be capable of making the journey to the [[Alpha Centauri]] star system 4.37 [[light-years]] away. It was founded in 2016 by [[Yuri Milner]], [[Stephen Hawking]], and [[Mark Zuckerberg]]."], "James Webb Space Telescope": ["The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST or \"Webb\") is a [[space telescope]] that is planned to be the successor to the [[Hubble Space Telescope]]. The JWST will provide greatly improved resolution and sensitivity over the Hubble, and will enable a broad range of investigations across the fields of [[astronomy]] and [[cosmology]], including observing some of the most distant events and objects in the [[universe]], such as the [[Galaxy formation and evolution|formation of the first galaxies]]. Other goals include understanding the [[formation of stars]] and [[planet formation|planets]], and [[List of directly imaged exoplanets|direct imaging]] of [[exoplanets]] and [[nova]]s.", "The primary mirror of the JWST, the [[Optical Telescope Element]], is composed of 18 hexagonal mirror segments made of [[gold]]-plated [[beryllium]] which combine to create a diameter mirror that is much larger than the Hubbles mirror. Unlike the Hubble, which observes in the [[near ultraviolet]], [[visible spectrum|visible]], and [[near infrared]] (0.1 to 1 \u03bcm) spectra, the JWST will observe in a lower frequency range, from long-wavelength visible light through [[infrared|mid-infrared]] (0.6 to 27 \u03bcm), which will allow it to observe high [[redshift]] objects that are too old and too distant for the Hubble to observe. The telescope must be kept very cold in order to observe in the infrared without interference, so it will be deployed in space near the Earth\u2013Sun [[Lagrangian point]], and a large [[Sunshield (JWST)|sunshield]] made of [[silicon]]- and [[aluminum]]-coated [[Kapton]] will keep its [[cold mirror|mirror]] and instruments below."]}, "History of exploration": {"Farthest from Earth": ["The [[Apollo 13]] flight passed the [[far side of the Moon]] at an altitude of above the lunar surface, and 400,171 km (248,655 mi) from Earth, marking the [[List of spaceflight records|record]] for the farthest humans have ever traveled from Earth in 1970.", "[[Voyager 1]] is currently at a distance of (21.708 billion kilometers; 13.489 billion miles) from Earth as of 1 January 2019. It is the most distant human-made object from Earth.", "[[GN-z11]] is the [[List of the most distant astronomical objects|most distant]] known object from Earth, reported as 13.4 billion [[light-year]]s away."], "First astronomical body space explorations": ["The first artificial object to reach another celestial body was [[Luna 2]] reaching the [[Moon]] in 1959. The first [[Soft landing (aeronautics)|soft landing]] on another celestial body was performed by [[Luna 9]] landing on the Moon on 3 February 1966. [[Luna 10]] became the first artificial satellite of the Moon, entering in a lunar orbit on 3 April 1966.", "The first crewed landing on another celestial body was performed by [[Apollo 11]] on 20 July 1969, landing on the Moon. There have been a total of six spacecraft with humans [[Moon landing|landing on the Moon]] starting from 1969 to the last human landing in 1972.", "The first interplanetary [[Flyby (spaceflight)|flyby]] was the 1961 [[Venera 1]] flyby of [[Venus]], though the 1962 [[Mariner 2]] was the first flyby of [[Venus]] to return data (closest approach 34,773 kilometers). [[Pioneer 6, 7, 8, and 9|Pioneer 6]] was the first satellite to orbit the [[Sun]], launched on 16 December 1965. The other planets were first flown by in 1965 for [[Mars]] by [[Mariner 4]], 1973 for [[Jupiter]] by [[Pioneer 10]], 1974 for [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] by [[Mariner 10]], 1979 for [[Saturn]] by [[Pioneer 11]], 1986 for [[Uranus]] by [[Voyager 2]], 1989 for [[Neptune]] by [[Voyager 2]]. In 2015, the [[dwarf planet]]s [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]] and [[Pluto]] were orbited by [[Dawn (spacecraft)|Dawn]] and passed by [[New Horizons]], respectively. This accounts for flybys of each of the eight planets in the [[Solar System]], the [[Sun]], the [[Moon]] and [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]] & [[Pluto]] (2 of the 5 [[Dwarf planet#Recognized|recognized dwarf planets]]).", "The first interplanetary surface mission to return at least limited surface data from another planet was the 1970 landing of [[Venera 7]], which returned data to Earth for 23 minutes from [[Venus]]. In 1975 the [[Venera 9]] was the first to return images from the surface of another planet, returning images from [[Venus]]. In 1971 the [[Mars 3]] mission achieved the first soft landing on Mars returning data for almost 20 seconds. Later much longer duration surface missions were achieved, including over six years of Mars surface operation by [[Viking 1]] from 1975 to 1982 and over two hours of transmission from the surface of Venus by [[Venera 13]] in 1982, the longest ever Soviet planetary surface mission. Venus and Mars are the two planets outside of Earth on which humans have conducted surface missions with unmanned [[robotic spacecraft]]."], "First human outer space flight": ["The first successful human spaceflight was [[Vostok 1]] (\"East 1\"), carrying the 27-year-old Russian [[cosmonaut]], [[Yuri Gagarin]], on 12 April 1961. The spacecraft completed one orbit around the globe, lasting about 1 hour and 48 minutes. Gagarins flight resonated around the world; it was a demonstration of the advanced [[Soviet space program]] and it opened an entirely new era in space exploration: [[human spaceflight]]."], "First interstellar space flight": ["[[Voyager 1]] became the first human-made object to [[List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System|leave the Solar System]] into [[Outer space#Interstellar space|interstellar space]] on 25 August 2012. The probe passed the [[Heliopause (astronomy)#Heliopause|heliopause]] at 121 [[Astronomical unit|AU]] to enter [[Interstellar medium|interstellar space]]."], "First outer space flights": ["In 1949, the [[Bumper-WAC]] reached an altitude of, becoming the first human-made object to enter space, according to [[NASA]], although [[V-2 Rocket]] [[MW 18014]] crossed the [[K\u00e1rm\u00e1n line]] earlier, in 1944.", "The first successful orbital launch was of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] uncrewed [[Sputnik 1]] (\"Satellite 1\") mission on 4 October 1957. The satellite weighed about, and is believed to have orbited Earth at a height of about. It had two radio transmitters (20 and 40 MHz), which emitted \"beeps\" that could be heard by radios around the globe. Analysis of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere, while temperature and pressure data was encoded in the duration of radio beeps. The results indicated that the satellite was not punctured by a [[meteoroid]]. Sputnik 1 was launched by an [[R-7 Semyorka|R-7]] rocket. It burned up upon re-entry on 3 January 1958."], "First space station": ["[[Salyut 1]] was the first [[space station]] of any kind, launched into [[low Earth orbit]] by the [[Soviet Union]] on 19 April 1971. The [[International Space Station]] is currently the only fully functional space station, inhabited continuously since the year 2000."], "Key people in early space exploration": ["The dream of stepping into the outer reaches of Earths atmosphere was driven by the fiction of [[Jules Verne]] and [[H. G. Wells]], and rocket technology was developed to try to realize this vision. The German [[V-2]] was the first rocket to travel into space, overcoming the problems of thrust and material failure. During the final days of World War II this technology was obtained by both the Americans and Soviets as were its designers. The initial driving force for further development of the technology was a weapons race for intercontinental ballistic missiles ([[ICBM]]s) to be used as long-range carriers for fast [[nuclear weapon]] delivery, but in 1961 when the [[Soviet Union]] launched the first man into space, the United States declared itself to be in a \"[[Space Race]]\" with the Soviets.", "[[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]], [[Robert Goddard]], [[Hermann Oberth]], and [[Reinhold Tiling]] laid the groundwork of rocketry in the early years of the 20th century.", "[[Wernher von Braun]] was the lead rocket engineer for [[Nazi]] Germanys World War II [[V-2]] rocket project. In the last days of the war he led a caravan of workers in the German rocket program to the American lines, where they surrendered and were brought to the United States to work on their rocket development (\"[[Operation Paperclip]]\"). He acquired American citizenship and led the team that developed and launched [[Explorer 1]], the first American satellite. Von Braun later led the team at [[NASA]]s [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] which developed the [[Saturn V]] moon rocket.", "Initially the race for space was often led by [[Sergei Korolev]], whose legacy includes both the [[R-7 Semyorka|R7]] and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]]\u2014which remain in service to this day. Korolev was the mastermind behind the first satellite, first man (and first woman) in orbit and first spacewalk. Until his death his identity was a closely guarded state secret; not even his mother knew that he was responsible for creating the Soviet space program.", "[[Kerim Kerimov]] was one of the founders of the [[Soviet space program]] and was one of the lead architects behind the first [[human spaceflight]] ([[Vostok 1]]) alongside Sergey Korolev. After Korolevs death in 1966, Kerimov became the lead scientist of the Soviet space program and was responsible for the launch of the first [[space station]]s from 1971 to 1991, including the [[Salyut]] and [[Mir]] series, and their precursors in 1967, the [[Cosmos 186]] and [[Cosmos 188]].", "* [[Valentin Glushko]] was Chief Engine Designer for the Soviet Union. Glushko designed many of the engines used on the early Soviet rockets, but was constantly at odds with Korolev.", "* [[Vasily Mishin]] was Chief Designer working under Sergey Korolev and one of the first Soviets to inspect the captured German V-2 design. Following the death of Sergei Korolev, Mishin was held responsible for the Soviet failure to be first country to place a man on the Moon.", "* [[Robert Gilruth]] was the [[NASA]] head of the Space Task Force and director of 25 crewed space flights. Gilruth was the person who suggested to [[John F. Kennedy]] that the Americans take the bold step of reaching the Moon in an attempt to reclaim space superiority from the Soviets.", "* [[Christopher C. Kraft, Jr.]] was NASAs first [[flight controller|flight director]], who oversaw development of [[Mission Control]] and associated technologies and procedures.", "* [[Maxime Faget]] was the designer of the [[Project Mercury|Mercury]] capsule; he played a key role in designing the [[Project Gemini|Gemini]] and [[Project Apollo|Apollo]] spacecraft, and contributed to the design of the [[Space Shuttle]]."], "Telescope": ["The first [[telescope]] was said to be invented in 1608 in the [[Netherlands]] by an [[eyeglass]] maker named [[Hans Lippershey]]. The [[Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 2]] was the first [[space telescope]] launched on 7 December 1968. As of 2 February 2019, there was 3,891 confirmed [[Lists of exoplanets|exoplanets]] discovered. The [[Milky Way]] is estimated to contain 100\u2013400 billion [[star]]s and more than 100 billion [[planets]]. There are at least 2 trillion [[galaxy|galaxies]] in the [[observable universe]]. [[GN-z11]] is the [[List of the most distant astronomical objects|most distant]] known object from Earth, reported as 32 billion [[light-year]]s away."]}, "Rationales": {"Human nature": ["[[Space advocacy]] and [[space policy]] regularly invokes exploration as a [[human nature]].", "This advocacy has been criticized by scholars as essentializing and continuation of [[colonialism]], particularly [[manifest destiny]], making space exploration misaligned with science and a less inclusive field."], "first_par": ["The research that is conducted by national space exploration agencies, such as [[NASA]] and [[Roscosmos]], is one of the reasons supporters cite to justify government expenses. Economic analyses of the NASA programs often showed ongoing economic benefits (such as [[NASA spin-off]]s), generating many times the revenue of the cost of the program. It is also argued that space exploration would lead to the extraction of resources on other planets and especially asteroids, which contain billions of dollars that worth of minerals and metals. Such expeditions could generate a lot of revenue. In addition, it has been argued that space exploration programs help inspire youth to study in science and engineering. Space exploration also gives scientists the ability to perform experiments in other settings and expand humanitys knowledge.", "Another claim is that space exploration is a necessity to mankind and that staying on Earth will lead to [[Human extinction|extinction]]. Some of the reasons are lack of natural resources, comets, nuclear war, and worldwide epidemic. [[Stephen Hawking]], renowned British theoretical physicist, said that \"I dont think the human race will survive the next thousand years, unless we spread into space. There are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet. But Im an optimist. We will reach out to the stars.\" [[Arthur C. Clarke]] (1950) presented a summary of motivations for the human exploration of space in his non-fiction semi-technical monograph Interplanetary Flight. He argued that humanitys choice is essentially between expansion off Earth into space, versus cultural (and eventually biological) stagnation and death.", "\"Develop multi-stage rockets capable of placing satellites, animals, and humans in space.", "Development of large, winged reusable spacecraft capable of carrying humans and equipment into Earth orbit in a way that made space access routine and cost-effective.", "Construction of a large, permanently occupied space station to be used as a platform both to observe Earth and from which to launch deep space expeditions.", "Launching the first human flights around the Moon, leading to the first landings of humans on the Moon, with the intent of exploring that body and establishing permanent lunar bases.", "Assembly and fueling of spaceships in Earth orbit for the purpose of sending humans to Mars with the intent of eventually colonizing that planet\".", "Known as the Von Braun Paradigm, the plan was formulated to lead humans in the exploration of space. Von Brauns vision of human space exploration served as the model for efforts in space space exploration well into the twenty-first century, with NASA incorporating this approach into the majority of their projects. The steps were followed out of order, as seen by the Apollo program reaching the moon before the space shuttle program was started, which in turn was used to complete the International Space Station. Von Brauns Paradigm formed NASAs drive for human exploration, in the hopes that humans discover the far reaches of the universe.", "NASA has produced a series of public service announcement videos supporting the concept of space exploration.", "Overall, the public remains largely supportive of both crewed and uncrewed space exploration. According to an [[Associated Press]] Poll conducted in July 2003, 71% of U.S. citizens agreed with the statement that the space program is \"a good investment\", compared to 21% who did not."]}, "Targets of exploration": {"Asteroids": ["Until the advent of [[Spaceflight|space travel]], objects in the [[asteroid belt]] were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes, their shapes and terrain remaining a mystery.", "Several asteroids have now been visited by probes, the first of which was [[Galileo (spacecraft)|Galileo]], which flew past two: [[951 Gaspra]] in 1991, followed by [[243 Ida]] in 1993. Both of these lay near enough to Galileos planned trajectory to Jupiter that they could be visited at acceptable cost. The first landing on an asteroid was performed by the [[NEAR Shoemaker]] probe in 2000, following an orbital survey of the object. The dwarf planet [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]] and the asteroid [[4 Vesta]], two of the three largest asteroids, were visited by NASAs [[Dawn (spacecraft)|Dawn spacecraft]], launched in 2007.", "[[Hayabusa (spacecraft)|Hayabusa]] was a [[robotic spacecraft]] developed by the [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] to [[Sample return mission|return a sample of material]] from the small near-Earth asteroid [[25143 Itokawa]] to Earth for further analysis. Hayabusa was launched on 9 May 2003 and rendezvoused with Itokawa in mid-September 2005. After arriving at Itokawa, Hayabusa studied the asteroids shape, spin, topography, color, composition, density, and history. In November 2005, it landed on the asteroid twice to collect samples. The spacecraft returned to Earth on 13 June 2010."], "Comets": ["Although many comets have been studied from Earth sometimes with centuries-worth of observations, only a few comets have been closely visited. In 1985, the [[International Cometary Explorer]] conducted the first comet fly-by ([[21P/Giacobini-Zinner]]) before joining the [[Halley Armada]] studying the famous comet. The [[Deep Impact (spacecraft)|Deep Impact probe]] smashed into [[9P/Tempel]] to learn more about its structure and composition and the [[Stardust (spacecraft)|Stardust mission]] returned samples of another comets tail. The [[Philae (spacecraft)|Philae lander]] successfully landed on [[67P/Churyumov\u2013Gerasimenko|Comet Churyumov\u2013Gerasimenko]] in 2014 as part of the broader [[Rosetta (spacecraft)|Rosetta mission]]."], "Deep space exploration": ["Deep space exploration is the branch of [[astronomy]], [[astronautics]] and [[space technology]] that is involved with the exploration of distant regions of outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by [[human spaceflight]]s (deep-space astronautics) and by [[robotic spacecraft]].", "Some of the best candidates for future deep space engine technologies include [[anti-matter]], [[nuclear power]] and [[beam-powered propulsion|beamed propulsion]]. The latter, beamed propulsion, appears to be the best candidate for deep space exploration presently available, since it uses known physics and known technology that is being developed for other purposes.", "{|"], "Earth": ["Space exploration has been used as a tool to understand Earth as a celestial object in its own right. Orbital missions can provide data for Earth that can be difficult or impossible to obtain from a purely ground-based point of reference.", "For example, the existence of the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s was unknown until their discovery by the United States first artificial satellite, [[Explorer 1]]. These belts contain radiation trapped by Earths magnetic fields, which currently renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical.", "Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation satellites have been deployed specifically to explore Earth from a space based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the understanding of a variety of Earth-based phenomena. For instance, the [[Ozone depletion|hole in the ozone layer]] was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring Earths atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise identify."], "Jupiter": ["The exploration of [[Jupiter]] has consisted solely of a number of automated NASA spacecraft visiting the planet since 1973. A large majority of the missions have been \"flybys\", in which detailed observations are taken without the probe landing or entering orbit; such as in [[Pioneer program|Pioneer]] and [[Voyager program|Voyager]] programs. The [[Galileo spacecraft|Galileo]] and [[Juno spacecraft|Juno]] spacecraft are the only spacecraft to have entered the planets orbit. As Jupiter is believed to have only a relatively small rocky core and no real solid surface, a landing mission is precluded.", "Reaching Jupiter from Earth requires a delta-v of 9.2 km/s, which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit. Fortunately, [[Gravitational slingshot|gravity assists]] through [[planetary flyby]]s can be used to reduce the energy required at launch to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration.", "Jupiter has 79 [[Moons of Jupiter|known moons]], many of which have relatively little known information about them."], "Mars": ["The exploration of [[Mars]] has been an important part of the space exploration programs of the Soviet Union (later Russia), the United States, Europe, Japan and India. Dozens of [[robotic spacecraft]], including [[orbiter]]s, [[Lander (spacecraft)|landers]], and [[rover (space exploration)|rovers]], have been launched toward Mars since the 1960s. These missions were aimed at gathering data about current conditions and answering questions about the history of Mars. The questions raised by the scientific community are expected to not only give a better appreciation of the red planet but also yield further insight into the past, and possible future, of Earth.", "The exploration of Mars has come at a considerable financial cost with roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failing before completing their missions, with some failing before they even began. Such a high failure rate can be attributed to the complexity and large number of variables involved in an interplanetary journey, and has led researchers to jokingly speak of The Great Galactic Ghoul which subsists on a diet of Mars probes. This phenomenon is also informally known as the \"[[Mars Curse]]\".", "In contrast to overall high failure rates in the exploration of Mars, [[India]] has become the first country to achieve success of its maiden attempt. Indias [[Mars Orbiter Mission]] (MOM) is one of the least expensive interplanetary missions ever undertaken with an approximate total cost of 450 [[Crore]]. The first mission to Mars by any Arab country has been taken up by the United Arab Emirates. Called the [[Emirates Mars Mission]], it is scheduled for launch in 2020. The uncrewed exploratory probe has been named \"Hope Probe\" and will be sent to Mars to study its atmosphere in detail."], "Mercury": [" [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] remains the least explored of the [[Terrestrial planets]]. As of May 2013, the [[Mariner 10]] and [[MESSENGER]] missions have been the only missions that have made close observations of Mercury. MESSENGER entered orbit around Mercury in March 2011, to further investigate the observations made by Mariner 10 in 1975 (Munsell, 2006b).", "A third mission to Mercury, scheduled to arrive in 2025, [[BepiColombo]] is to include two [[space probe|probes]]. BepiColombo is a joint mission between Japan and the [[European Space Agency]]. MESSENGER and BepiColombo are intended to gather complementary data to help scientists understand many of the mysteries discovered by Mariner 10s [[Gravitational slingshot|flybys]].", "Flights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or [[delta-v]]. Due to the relatively high delta-v to reach Mercury and its proximity to the Sun, it is difficult to explore and orbits around it are rather unstable."], "Neptune": ["The exploration of Neptune began with 25 August 1989 [[Voyager 2]] flyby, the sole visit to the system as of 2014. The possibility of a [[Neptune Orbiter]] has been discussed, but no other missions have been given serious thought.", "Although the extremely uniform appearance of Uranus during Voyager 2s visit in 1986 had led to expectations that Neptune would also have few visible atmospheric phenomena, the spacecraft found that Neptune had obvious banding, visible clouds, [[Aurora (astronomy)|auroras]], and even a conspicuous [[Great Dark Spot|anticyclone storm system]] rivaled in size only by Jupiters [[Great Red Spot]]. Neptune also proved to have the fastest winds of any planet in the Solar System, measured as high as 2,100 km/h. Voyager 2 also examined Neptunes ring and moon system. It discovered 900 complete rings and additional partial ring \"arcs\" around Neptune. In addition to examining Neptunes three previously known moons, Voyager 2 also discovered five previously unknown moons, one of which, [[Proteus (moon)|Proteus]], proved to be the last largest moon in the system. Data from Voyager 2 supported the view that Neptunes largest moon, [[Triton (moon)|Triton]], is a captured [[Kuiper belt]] object."], "Other objects in the Solar System": ["The New Horizons mission did a flyby of the small planetesimal [[Arrokoth]] in 2019."], "Phobos": ["The Russian space mission [[Fobos-Grunt]], which launched on 9 November 2011 experienced a failure leaving it stranded in [[low Earth orbit]]. It was to begin exploration of the [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]] and Martian circumterrestrial orbit, and study whether the moons of Mars, or at least Phobos, could be a \"trans-shipment point\" for spaceships traveling to Mars."], "Pluto": ["The [[dwarf planet]] Pluto presents significant challenges for spacecraft because of its great distance from Earth (requiring high velocity for reasonable trip times) and small mass (making capture into orbit very difficult at present). [[Voyager 1]] could have visited Pluto, but controllers opted instead for a close flyby of Saturns moon Titan, resulting in a trajectory incompatible with a Pluto flyby. [[Voyager 2]] never had a plausible trajectory for reaching Pluto.", "After an intense political battle, a mission to Pluto dubbed [[New Horizons]] was granted funding from the United States government in 2003. New Horizons was launched successfully on 19 January 2006. In early 2007 the craft made use of a [[gravity assist]] from [[Jupiter]]. Its closest approach to Pluto was on 14 July 2015; scientific observations of Pluto began five months prior to closest approach and continued for 16 days after the encounter."], "Saturn": ["[[Saturn]] has been explored only through uncrewed spacecraft launched by NASA, including one mission ([[Cassini\u2013Huygens]]) planned and executed in cooperation with other space agencies. These missions consist of flybys in 1979 by [[Pioneer 11]], in 1980 by [[Voyager 1]], in 1982 by [[Voyager 2]] and an orbital mission by the Cassini spacecraft, which lasted from 2004 until 2017.", "Saturn has at least 62 [[Moons of Saturn|known moons]], although the exact number is debatable since Saturns rings are made up of vast numbers of independently orbiting objects of varying sizes. The largest of the moons is [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], which holds the distinction of being the only moon in the Solar System with an atmosphere denser and thicker than that of Earth. Titan holds the distinction of being the only object in the Outer Solar System that has been explored with a lander, the Huygens probe deployed by the Cassini spacecraft."], "The Moon": ["The [[Moon]] was the first celestial body to be the object of space exploration. It holds the distinctions of being the first remote celestial object to be flown by, orbited, and landed upon by spacecraft, and the only remote celestial object ever to be visited by humans.", "In 1959 the Soviets obtained the first images of the [[far side of the Moon]], never previously visible to humans. The U.S. exploration of the Moon began with the [[Ranger 4]] impactor in 1962. Starting in 1966 the Soviets successfully deployed a number of [[Lander (spacecraft)|landers]] to the Moon which were able to obtain data directly from the Moons surface; just four months later, [[Surveyor 1]] marked the debut of a successful series of U.S. landers. The Soviet uncrewed missions culminated in the [[Lunokhod programme|Lunokhod program]] in the early 1970s, which included the first uncrewed rovers and also successfully [[Sample return mission|brought lunar soil samples to Earth]] for study. This marked the first (and to date the only) automated return of extraterrestrial soil samples to Earth. Uncrewed exploration of the Moon continues with various nations periodically deploying lunar orbiters, and in 2008 the Indian [[Moon Impact Probe]].", "Crewed exploration of the Moon began in 1968 with the [[Apollo 8]] mission that successfully orbited the Moon, the first time any extraterrestrial object was orbited by humans. In 1969, the [[Apollo 11]] mission marked the first time humans set foot upon another world. Crewed exploration of the Moon did not continue for long, however. The [[Apollo 17]] mission in 1972 marked the sixth landing and the most recent human visit there. [[Artemis 2]] will flyby the Moon in 2022. Robotic missions are still pursued vigorously."], "The Sun": ["The [[Sun]] is a major focus of space exploration. Being above the atmosphere in particular and Earths magnetic field gives access to the solar wind and infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earths surface. The Sun generates most [[space weather]], which can affect power generation and transmission systems on Earth and interfere with, and even damage, satellites and space probes. Numerous spacecraft dedicated to observing the Sun, beginning with the [[Apollo Telescope Mount]], have been launched and still others have had solar observation as a secondary objective. [[Parker Solar Probe]], launched in 2018, will approach the Sun to within 1/8th the orbit of Mercury."], "Uranus": ["The exploration of [[Uranus]] has been entirely through the [[Voyager 2]] spacecraft, with no other visits currently planned. Given its [[axial tilt]] of 97.77\u00b0, with its polar regions exposed to sunlight or darkness for long periods, scientists were not sure what to expect at Uranus. The closest approach to Uranus occurred on 24 January 1986. Voyager 2 studied the planets unique atmosphere and [[magnetosphere]]. Voyager 2 also examined its [[Rings of Uranus|ring system]] and the [[moons of Uranus]] including all five of the previously known moons, while discovering an additional ten previously unknown moons.", "Images of Uranus proved to have a very uniform appearance, with no evidence of the dramatic storms or atmospheric banding evident on Jupiter and Saturn. Great effort was required to even identify a few clouds in the images of the planet. The magnetosphere of Uranus, however, proved to be unique, being profoundly affected by the planets unusual axial tilt. In contrast to the bland appearance of Uranus itself, striking images were obtained of the Moons of Uranus, including evidence that [[Miranda (moon)|Miranda]] had been unusually geologically active."], "Venus": ["[[Venus]] was the first target of interplanetary flyby and lander missions and, despite one of the most hostile surface environments in the Solar System, has had more landers sent to it (nearly all from the Soviet Union) than any other planet in the Solar System. The first flyby was the 1961 [[Venera 1]], though the 1962 [[Mariner 2]] was the first flyby to successfully return data. Mariner 2 has been followed by several other flybys by multiple space agencies often as part of missions using a Venus flyby to provide a [[Gravity assist|gravitational assist]] en route to other celestial bodies. In 1967 [[Venera 4]] became the first probe to enter and directly examine the atmosphere of Venus. In 1970, [[Venera 7]] became the first successful lander to reach the surface of Venus and by 1985 it had been followed by eight additional successful Soviet Venus landers which provided images and other direct surface data. Starting in 1975 with the Soviet orbiter [[Venera 9]] some ten successful orbiter missions have been sent to Venus, including later missions which were able to map the surface of Venus using [[radar]] to pierce the obscuring atmosphere."], "first_par": ["Starting in the mid-20th century probes and then human mission were sent into Earth orbit, and then on to the Moon. Also, probes were sent throughout the known Solar system, and into Solar orbit. Unmanned spacecraft have been sent into orbit around Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mercury by the 21st century, and the most distance active spacecraft, Voyager 1 and 2 traveled beyond 100 times the Earth-Sun distance. The instruments were enough though that it is thought they have left the Suns heliosphere, a sort of bubble of particles made in the Galaxy by the Suns [[solar wind]]."]}, "Topics": {"Alien life": ["Astrobiology is the [[interdisciplinary]] study of life in the universe, combining aspects of [[astronomy]], [[biology]] and geology. It is focused primarily on the study of the [[origin of life|origin]], distribution and [[evolution]] of life. It is also known as exobiology (from Greek: \u03ad\u03be\u03c9, exo, \"outside\"). The term \"Xenobiology\" has been used as well, but this is technically incorrect because its terminology means \"biology of the foreigners\". Astrobiologists must also consider the possibility of life that is chemically entirely distinct from any life found on Earth. In the Solar System some of the prime locations for current or past astrobiology are on Enceladus, Europa, Mars, and Titan."], "Art": ["Artistry in and from space ranges from signals, capturing and arranging material like [[Yuri Gagarin]]s [[selfie]] in space or the image [[The Blue Marble]], over drawings like the first one in space by cosmonaut and artist [[Alexei Leonov]], music videos like [[Space Oddity#Chris Hadfield version|Chris Hadfields cover of Space Oddity]] on board the ISS, to permanent installations on celestial bodies like [[Moon#Human impact|on the Moon]]."], "Commercialization of space": ["The commercialization of space first started out with the launching of private satellites by NASA or other space agencies. Current examples of the commercial satellite use of space include [[satellite navigation system]]s, satellite television and [[satellite radio]]. The next step of commercialization of space was seen as human spaceflight. Flying humans safely to and from space had become routine to NASA. Reusable spacecraft were an entirely new engineering challenge, something only seen in novels and films like Star Trek and War of the Worlds. Great names like [[Buzz Aldrin]] supported the use of making a reusable vehicle like the space shuttle. Aldrin held that reusable spacecraft were the key in making space travel affordable, stating that the use of \"passenger space travel is a huge potential market big enough to justify the creation of reusable launch vehicles\". How can the public go against the words of one of Americas best known heroes in space exploration? After all exploring space is the next great expedition, following the example of Lewis and Clark.[[Space tourism]] is the next step reusable vehicles in the commercialization of space. The purpose of this form of [[Human spaceflight|space travel]] is used by individuals for the purpose of personal pleasure.", "[[Private spaceflight|Private spaceflight companies]] such as [[SpaceX]] and [[Blue Origin]], and [[Orbital Technologies Commercial Space Station|commercial space stations]] such as the Axiom Space and the [[Bigelow Commercial Space Station]] have dramatically changed the landscape of space exploration, and will continue to do so in the near future."], "Human spaceflight and habitation": {"=Women": ["The first woman to ever enter space was [[Valentina Tereshkova]]. She flew in 1963 but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space again. All astronauts were required to be military test pilots at the time and women were not able to enter this career, this is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews. After the rule changed, [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] became the second woman to enter space, she was also from the [[Soviet Union]]. [[Sally Ride]] became the next woman to enter space and the first woman to enter space through the United States program.", "Since then, eleven other countries have allowed women astronauts. The first all female space walk occurred in 2018, including [[Christina Koch]] and [[Jessica Meir]]. These two women have both participated in separate space walks with NASA. The first woman to go to the moon is planned for 2024.", "* agencies limiting women to half as much time in space than men, arguing with unresearched potential risks for cancer.", "* a lack of space suits sized appropriately for female astronauts.", "Additionally women have been discriminately treated for example as with Sally Ride by being scrutinized more than her male counterparts and asked sexist questions by the press."], "Human representation and participation": ["Participation and representation of humanity in space is an issue ever since the first phase of space exploration. Some rights of non-spacefaring countries have been secured through international [[space law]], declaring space the \"[[Common heritage of mankind|province of all mankind]]\", understanding [[spaceflight]] as its resource, though sharing of space for all humanity is still criticized as [[imperialism|imperialist]] and lacking. Additionally to international inclusion, the inclusion of women and [[people of colour]] has also been lacking. To reach a more inclusive spaceflight some organizations like the Justspace Alliance and [[IAU]] featured Inclusive Astronomy have been formed in recent years."], "first_par": ["To date, the longest human occupation of space is the [[International Space Station]] which has been in continuous use for. [[Valeri Polyakov]]s record single spaceflight of almost 438 days aboard the [[Mir]] space station has not been surpassed. The health effects of space have been well documented through years of research conducted in the field of [[Aerospace Medicine|aerospace medicine]]. Analog environments similar to those one may experience in space travel (like deep sea submarines) have been used in this research to further explore the relationship between isolation and extreme environments. It is imperative that the health of the crew be maintained as any deviation from baseline may compromise the integrity of the mission as well as the safety of the crew, hence the reason why astronauts must endure rigorous medical screenings and tests prior to embarking on any missions. However, it does not take long for the environmental dynamics of spaceflight to commence its toll on the human body; for example, [[Space adaptation syndrome|space motion sickness (SMS)]] - a condition which affects the neurovestibular system and culminates in mild to severe signs and symptoms such as vertigo, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, and disorientation - plagues almost all space travelers within their first few days in orbit. Space travel can also have a profound impact on the psyche of the crew members as delineated in anecdotal writings composed after their retirement. Space travel can adversely affect the bodys natural biological clock ([[circadian rhythm]]); sleep patterns causing sleep deprivation and fatigue; and social interaction; consequently, residing in a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) environment for a prolonged amount of time can result in both mental and physical exhaustion. Long-term stays in space reveal issues with bone and muscle loss in low gravity, immune system suppression, and radiation exposure. The lack of gravity causes fluid to rise upward which can cause pressure to build up in the eye, resulting in vision problems; the loss of bone minerals and densities; cardiovascular deconditioning; and decreased endurance and muscle mass.", "[[Radiation]] is perhaps the most insidious health hazard to space travelers as it is invisible to the naked eye and can cause cancer. Space craft are no longer protected from the suns radiation as they are positioned above the Earths magnetic field; the danger of radiation is even more potent when one enters deep space. The hazards of radiation can be ameliorated through protective shielding on the spacecraft, alerts, and [[dosimetry]].", "Fortunately, with new and rapidly evolving technological advancements, those in [[Mission control center|Mission Control]] are able to monitor the health of their [[astronaut]]s more closely utilizing [[telemedicine]]. One may not be able to completely evade the physiological effects of space flight, but they can be mitigated. For example, medical systems aboard space vessels such as the [[International Space Station|International Space Station (ISS)]] are well equipped and designed to counteract the effects of lack of gravity and weightlessness; on-board treadmills can help prevent muscle loss and reduce the risk of developing premature osteoporosis. Additionally, a crew medical officer is appointed for each ISS mission and a [[flight surgeon]] is available 24/7 via the [[Mission control center|ISS Mission Control Center]] located in [[Houston|Houston, Texas.]] Although the interactions are intended to take place in real time, communications between the space and terrestrial crew may become delayed - sometimes by as much as 20 minutes - as their distance from each other increases when the spacecraft moves further out of LEO; because of this the crew are trained and need to be prepared to respond to any medical emergencies that may arise on the vessel as the ground crew are hundreds of miles away. As one can see, travelling and possibly living in space poses many challenges. Many past and current concepts for the continued exploration and colonization of space focus on a return to the Moon as a \"stepping stone\" to the other planets, especially Mars. At the end of 2006 NASA announced they were planning to build a permanent Moon base with continual presence by 2024.", "Beyond the technical factors that could make living in space more widespread, it has been suggested that the lack of [[private property]], the inability or difficulty in establishing [[property rights]] in space, has been an impediment to the development of space for human habitation. Since the advent of [[space technology]] in the latter half of the twentieth century, the ownership of property in space has been murky, with strong arguments both for and against. In particular, the making of [[Sovereign state|national]] [[Land claim|territorial claims]] in [[outer space]] and on [[celestial body|celestial bodies]] has been specifically proscribed by the [[Outer Space Treaty]], which had been,, ratified by all [[Spacefaring|spacefaring nations]].", "Space colonization, also called space settlement and space humanization, would be the permanent autonomous (self-sufficient) human [[Space habitat|habitation]] of locations outside Earth, especially of natural satellites or planets such as the [[Colonization of the Moon|Moon]] or [[Colonization of Mars|Mars]], using significant amounts of [[in-situ resource utilization]]."]}, "Satellites": ["Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military (spy) and civilian Earth observation satellites, communication satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. [[Space station]]s and human [[spacecraft]] in orbit are also satellites."], "Spaceflight": ["Spaceflight is the use of [[space technology]] to achieve the flight of [[spacecraft]] into and through outer space.", "Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like [[space tourism]] and [[telecommunications satellite|satellite telecommunications]]. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include [[Space observatory|space observatories]], [[reconnaissance satellite]]s and other [[Earth observation satellite]]s.", "A spaceflight typically begins with a [[rocket launch]], which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of [[gravity]] and propels the spacecraft from the surface of Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft\u2014both when unpropelled and when under propulsion\u2014is covered by the area of study called [[astrodynamics]]. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during [[atmospheric reentry]], and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact."]}, "first_par": ["Space exploration is the use of [[astronomy]] and [[space technology]] to explore [[outer space]]. While the exploration of space is carried out mainly by [[astronomer]]s with [[telescope]]s, its physical exploration though is conducted both by [[unmanned robotic space probes]] and [[human spaceflight]]. Space exploration, like its classical form [[astronomy]], is one of the main sources for [[space science]].", "While the observation of objects in space, known as [[astronomy]], predates reliable [[recorded history]], it was the development of large and relatively efficient [[rocket]]s during the mid-twentieth century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, national prestige, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity, and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries.", "The early era of space exploration was driven by a \"[[Space Race]]\" between the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]]. The launch of the first human-made object to orbit [[Earth]], the Soviet Unions [[Sputnik 1]], on 4 October 1957, and the first [[Moon landing]] by the American [[Apollo 11]] mission on 20 July 1969 are often taken as landmarks for this initial period. The Soviet space program achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first [[human spaceflight]] ([[Yuri Gagarin]] aboard [[Vostok 1]]) in 1961, the first [[spacewalk]] (by [[Alexei Leonov]]) on 18 March 1965, the [[Luna 9|first automatic landing]] on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first [[space station]] ([[Salyut 1]]) in 1971. ", "After the first 20 years of exploration, focus shifted from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the [[Space Shuttle program]], and from competition to cooperation as with the [[International Space Station]] (ISS).", "With the substantial completion of the ISS following [[STS-133]] in March 2011, plans for space exploration by the U.S. remain in flux. [[Constellation program|Constellation]], a Bush Administration program for a return to the Moon by 2020 was judged inadequately funded and unrealistic by [[Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee|an expert review panel]] reporting in 2009. ", "The Obama Administration proposed a revision of Constellation in 2010 to focus on the development of the capability for crewed missions beyond [[low Earth orbit]] (LEO), envisioning extending the operation of the [[International Space Station|ISS]] beyond 2020, transferring the development of launch vehicles for human crews from [[NASA]] to the private sector, and developing technology to enable missions to beyond LEO, such as [[Lagrange point|Earth\u2013Moon L1]], the Moon, [[Lagrange point|Earth\u2013Sun L2]], near-Earth asteroids, and [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]] or Mars orbit.", "In the 2000s, [[China]] initiated a [[Chinese space program|successful manned spaceflight program]] when India launched Chandraayan 1, while the [[European Union]] and [[Japan]] have also planned future crewed space missions. China, Russia, and Japan have advocated crewed missions to the Moon during the 21st century, while the European Union has advocated [[Aurora programme|manned missions to both the Moon and Mars]] during the 20th and 21st century.", "From the 1990s onwards, private interests began promoting [[space tourism]] and then public space exploration of the Moon (see [[Google Lunar X Prize]]). Students interested in Space have formed [[SEDS]] (Students for the Exploration and Development of Space). [[SpaceX]] is currently developing [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]], a [[Reusable launch system|fully reusable]] orbital launch vehicle that is expected to massively reduce the cost of spaceflight and allow for crewed planetary exploration."]}, "main_pages": {"=Women": ["Women in space"], "Alien life": ["Astrobiology", "Extraterrestrial life"], "Asteroids": ["Exploration of the asteroids"], "Comets": ["List of missions to comets"], "Commercialization of space": ["Commercialization of space"], "Earth": ["Earth observation satellite"], "Human spaceflight and habitation": ["Human spaceflight", "Bioastronautics", "Effect of spaceflight on the human body", "Space medicine", "Space architecture", "Space station", "Space habitat (facility)", "Space habitat (settlement)"], "James Webb Space Telescope": ["James Webb Space Telescope"], "Jupiter": ["Exploration of Jupiter"], "Mars": ["Exploration of Mars"], "Phobos": ["Exploration of Phobos"], "Rationales": ["Space advocacy"], "Satellites": ["Satellite"], "Saturn": ["Exploration of Saturn"], "Spaceflight": ["Spaceflight", "Astronautics"], "The Moon": ["Exploration of the Moon"], "Topics": ["Space science", "Human presence in space"], "Uranus": ["Exploration of Uranus"], "Venus": ["Observations and explorations of Venus"]}}, "Democracy": {"page_content": {"Characteristics": ["No consensus exists on how to define democracy \u2013 indeed, one study found that at least 2,234 descriptions of democracy exist in the English language - but [[legal equality]], [[political freedom]] and [[rule of law]] have been identified as important characteristics. These principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being [[Equality before the law|equal before the law]] and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a [[representative democracy]], every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its eligible citizens is secured by legitimised rights and liberties which are typically protected by a [[constitution]]. Other uses of \"democracy\" include that of [[direct democracy]].", "One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: upward control (sovereignty residing at the lowest levels of authority), political equality, and social norms by which individuals and institutions only consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality.", "The term \"democracy\" is sometimes used as shorthand for [[liberal democracy]], which is a variant of representative democracy that may include elements such as [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|political pluralism]]; equality before the law; the [[right to petition]] elected officials for redress of grievances; [[due process]]; [[civil liberties]]; [[human rights]]; and elements of [[civil society]] outside the government. [[Roger Scruton]] argues that democracy alone cannot provide personal and political freedom unless the institutions of [[civil society]] are also present.", "In some countries, notably in the [[United Kingdom]] which originated the [[Westminster system]], the dominant principle is that of [[parliamentary sovereignty]], while maintaining [[judicial independence]]. In [[India]], parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the [[Constitution of India]] which includes [[judicial review]]. Though the term \"democracy\" is typically used in the context of a [[state (polity)|political state]], the principles also are applicable to private [[organisation]]s.", "There are many decision-making methods used in democracies, but [[majority rule]] is the dominant form. Without compensation, like legal protections of individual or group rights, [[minority group|political minorities]] can be oppressed by the \"[[tyranny of the majority]]\". Majority rule is a competitive approach, opposed to [[consensus democracy]], creating the need that [[elections]], and generally [[deliberation]], are substantively and procedurally \"[[wikt:fair|fair]],\" i.e. [[wikt:just|just]] and [[wikt:equitable|equitable]]. In some countries, [[freedom (political)|freedom of political expression]], [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of the press]], and [[E-democracy|internet democracy]] are considered important to ensure that voters are well informed, enabling them to vote according to their own interests.", "It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. With its emphasis on notions of [[social contract]] and the collective will of all the voters, democracy can also be characterised as a form of political [[collectivism]] because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in lawmaking.", "[[Republic]]s, though often associated with democracy because of the shared principle of rule by [[consent of the governed]], are not necessarily democracies, as [[republicanism]] does not specify how the people are to rule.", "Classically the term \"[[republic]]\" encompassed both democracies and [[aristocracy|aristocracies]]. In a modern sense the republican form of government is a form of government without [[monarch]]. Because of this democracies can be republics or [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchies]], such as the [[United Kingdom]]."], "Criticism": {"Arrows theorem": ["[[Arrows impossibility theorem]] suggests that democracy is logically incoherent. This is based on a certain set of criteria for democratic decision-making being inherently conflicting. However, Arrows formal premises can be considered overly strict, and with their reasonable weakening, the logical incoherence of democracy looks much less critical."], "Fraudulent elections": ["In representative democracies, it may not benefit incumbents to conduct fair elections. A study showed that incumbents who rig elections stay in office 2.5 times as long as those who permit fair elections. Democracies in countries with high per capita income have been found to be less prone to violence, but in countries with low incomes the tendency is the reverse. Election misconduct is more likely in countries with low per capita incomes, small populations, rich in natural resources, and a lack of institutional checks and balances. [[Sub-Saharan]] countries, as well as Afghanistan, all tend to fall into that category.", "Governments that have frequent elections tend to have significantly more stable economic policies than those governments who have infrequent elections. However, this trend does not apply to governments where fraudulent elections are common."], "Inefficiencies": ["Some economists have criticized the efficiency of democracy, citing the premise of the irrational voter, or a voter who makes decisions without all of the facts or necessary information in order to make a truly informed decision. Another argument is that democracy slows down processes because of the amount of input and participation needed in order to go forward with a decision. A common example often quoted to substantiate this point is the high economic development achieved by China (a non-democratic country) as compared to India (a democratic country). According to economists, the lack of democratic participation in countries like China allows for unfettered economic growth.", "On the other hand, [[Socrates]] believed that democracy without educated masses (educated in the broader sense of being knowledgeable and responsible) would only lead to [[populism]] being the criteria to become an elected leader and not competence. This would ultimately lead to a demise of the nation. This was quoted by Plato in book 10 of The Republic, in Socrates conversation with Adimantus. Socrates was of the opinion that the right to vote must not be an indiscriminate right (for example by birth or citizenship), but must be given only to people who thought sufficiently of their choice."], "Mob rule": ["[[Plato]]s [[The Republic (Plato)|The Republic]] presents a critical view of democracy through the narration of [[Socrates]]: \"Democracy, which is a charming form of government, full of variety and disorder, and dispensing a sort of equality to equals and unequaled alike.\" In his work, Plato lists [[Platos five regimes|5 forms of government]] from best to worst. Assuming that the Republic was intended to be a serious critique of the political thought in Athens, Plato argues that only Kallipolis, an aristocracy led by the unwilling philosopher-kings (the wisest men), is a just form of government.", "[[James Madison]] critiqued direct democracy (which he referred to simply as \"democracy\") in [[Federalist No. 10]], arguing that representative democracy\u2014which he described using the term \"republic\"\u2014is a preferable form of government, saying: \"... democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths.\" Madison offered that republics were superior to democracies because republics safeguarded against [[tyranny of the majority]], stating in [[Federalist No. 10]]: \"the same advantage which a republic has over a democracy, in controlling the effects of faction, is enjoyed by a large over a small republic\"."], "Opposition": ["Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government within a non-democratic state is typically brought about by [[democratic revolution]]."], "Political instability": ["More recently, democracy is criticised for not offering enough political stability. As governments are frequently elected on and off there tends to be frequent changes in the policies of democratic countries both domestically and internationally. Even if a political party maintains power, vociferous, headline-grabbing protests and harsh criticism from the popular media are often enough to force sudden, unexpected political change. Frequent policy changes with regard to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so hinder economic growth. For this reason, many people have put forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty are top priorities.", "This opportunist alliance not only has the handicap of having to cater to too many ideologically opposing factions, but it is usually short-lived since any perceived or actual imbalance in the treatment of coalition partners, or changes to leadership in the coalition partners themselves, can very easily result in the coalition partner withdrawing its support from the government.", "Biased media has been accused of causing political instability, resulting in the obstruction of democracy, rather than its promotion."], "Popular rule as a fa\u00e7ade": ["The 20th-century Italian thinkers [[Vilfredo Pareto]] and [[Gaetano Mosca]] (independently) argued that democracy was illusory, and served only to mask the reality of elite rule. Indeed, they argued that elite oligarchy is the unbendable law of human nature, due largely to the apathy and division of the masses (as opposed to the drive, initiative and unity of the elites), and that democratic institutions would do no more than shift the exercise of power from oppression to manipulation. As [[Louis Brandeis]] once professed, \"We may have democracy, or we may have [[wealth]] concentrated in the hands of a few, but we cant have both.\". British writer [[Ivo Mosley]], grandson of blackshirt [[Oswald Mosley]] describes in In the Name of the People: Pseudo-Democracy and the Spoiling of Our World, how and why current forms of electoral governance are destined to fall short of their promise.", "A study led by Princeton professor Martin Gilens of 1,779 U.S. government decisions concluded that", "\"elites and organized groups representing business interests have substantial independent impacts on U.S. government policy, while average citizens and mass-based interest groups have little or no independent influence.\" "]}, "Development": ["Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy.", "Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, [[Ronald Inglehart]] suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on [[self-expression values]], which correlates closely with democracy.", "Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that [[democratic peace theory|democracy causes peace]], but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy.", "[[Carroll Quigley]] concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy\u2014this scenario\u2014tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments couldnt do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns. Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy.", "* a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing)", "* an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence.", "Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged [[modernisation theory]] by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. Neither is there convincing evidence that increased reliance on oil revenues prevents democratisation, despite a vast theoretical literature on \"[[the Resource Curse]]\" that asserts that oil revenues sever the link between citizen taxation and government accountability, seen as the key to representative democracy. The lack of evidence for these conventional theories of democratisation have led researchers to search for the \"deep\" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. More inclusive [[institution]]s lead to democracy because as people gain more power, they are able to demand more from the elites, who in turn have to concede more things to keep their position. This virtuous circle may end up in democracy.", "An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the [[tsetse fly]]\u2014which afflicts humans and livestock\u2014reduced the ability of Africans to plow the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others [[autocracies]].", "An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of [[trade]]. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power.", "In the 21st century, democracy has become such a popular method of reaching decisions that its application beyond politics to other areas such as entertainment, food and fashion, consumerism, urban planning, education, art, literature, science and theology has been criticised as \"the reigning dogma of our time\". The argument suggests that applying a populist or market-driven approach to art and literature (for example), means that innovative creative work goes unpublished or unproduced. In education, the argument is that essential but more difficult studies are not undertaken. Science, as a [[truth]]-based discipline, is particularly corrupted by the idea that the correct conclusion can be arrived at by popular vote. However, more recently, theorists have also advanced the concept [[epistemic democracy]] to assert that democracy actually does a good job tracking the truth.", "Dr. [[Harald Wydra]], in his book Communism and The Emergence of Democracy (2007), maintains that the development of democracy should not be viewed as a purely procedural or as a static concept but rather as an ongoing \"process of meaning formation\". Drawing on Claude Leforts idea of the empty place of power, that \"power emanates from the people [...] but is the power of nobody\", he remarks that democracy is reverence to a symbolic mythical authority\u2014as in reality, there is no such thing as the people or demos. Democratic political figures are not supreme rulers but rather temporary guardians of an empty place. Any claim to substance such as the [[collective good]], the [[public interest]] or the will of the nation is subject to the competitive struggle and times of for gaining the authority of office and government. The essence of the democratic system is an empty place, void of real people, which can only be temporarily filled and never be appropriated. The seat of power is there but remains open to constant change. As such, peoples definitions of \"democracy\" or of \"democratic\" progress throughout history as a continual and potentially never-ending process of social construction."], "History": {"Historic origins and proto-democratic societies": ["Retrospectively different polities, outside of declared democracies, have been described as proto-democratic (see [[History of democracy#Historic origins|History of democracy]])."], "Middle Ages": ["While most regions in [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]] were ruled by [[clergy]] or [[feudal lords]], there existed various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small part of the population. In [[Scandinavia]], bodies known as [[Thing (assembly)|things]] consisted of freemen presided by a [[lawspeaker]]. These deliberative bodies were responsible for settling political questions, and variants included the [[Althing]] in [[Iceland]] and the [[L\u00f8gting]] in the [[Faeroe Islands]]. The [[veche]], found in [[Eastern Europe]], was a similar body to the Scandinavian thing. In the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[pope]] has been elected by a [[papal conclave]] composed of cardinals since 1059. The first documented parliamentary body in Europe was the [[Cortes of Le\u00f3n of 1188|Cortes of Le\u00f3n]]. Established by [[Alfonso IX]] in 1188, the Cortes had authority over setting taxation, foreign affairs and legislating, though the exact nature of its role remains disputed. The [[Republic of Ragusa]], established in 1358 and centered around the city of [[Dubrovnik]], provided representation and voting rights to its male aristocracy only. Various Italian city-states and polities had republic forms of government. For instance, the [[Republic of Florence]], established in 1115, was led by the [[Signoria of Florence|Signoria]] whose members were chosen by [[sortition]]. In 10th\u201315th century [[Frisian freedom|Frisia]], a distinctly non-feudal society, the right to vote on local matters and on county officials was based on land size. The [[Kouroukan Fouga]] divided the [[Mali Empire]] into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara. However, the charter made Mali more similar to a [[constitutional monarchy]] than a [[democratic republic]].", "The [[Parliament of England]] had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into [[Magna Carta]] (1215), which explicitly protected certain rights of the Kings subjects and implicitly supported what became the English writ of [[habeas corpus]], safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal. The first representative national assembly in [[Kingdom of England|England]] was [[Simon de Montforts Parliament]] in 1265. The emergence of [[Parliament of England#The emergence of parliament as an institution|petitioning]] is some of the earliest evidence of parliament being used as a forum to address the general grievances of ordinary people. However, the power to call parliament remained at the pleasure of the monarch.", "Studies have linked the emergence of parliamentary institutions in Europe during the medieval period to urban agglomeration and the creation of new classes, such as artisans, as well as the presence of nobility and religious elites. Scholars have also linked the emergence of representative government to Europes relative political fragmentation. New York University political scientist David Stasavage links the fragmentation of Europe, and its subsequent democratization, to the manner in which the Roman Empire collapsed: Roman territory was conquered by small fragmented groups of Germanic tribes, thus leading to the creation of small political units where rulers were relatively weak and needed the consent of the governed to ward off foreign threats."], "Modern era": {"18th and 19th centuries": ["The [[first Parliament of Great Britain]] was established in 1707, after the merger of the [[Kingdom of England]] and the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] under the [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]]. Although the monarch increasingly became a [[Constitutional monarchy|figurehead]], Parliament was only elected by male property owners, which amounted to 3% of the population in 1780. The first known British person of [[Africans|African]] heritage to vote in a general election, [[Ignatius Sancho]], voted in 1774 and 1780. During the [[Age of Liberty]] in Sweden (1718\u20131772), [[civil rights]] were expanded and power shifted from the monarch to parliament. The taxed peasantry was represented in parliament, although with little influence, but commoners without taxed property had no suffrage.", "The creation of the short-lived [[Corsican Republic]] in 1755 marked the first nation in modern history to adopt a democratic [[constitution]] (all men and women above age of 25 could vote). This [[Corsican Constitution]] was the first based on [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] principles and included [[female suffrage]], something that was not granted in most other democracies until the 20th century.", "In the [[Colonial history of the United States|American colonial period before 1776]], and for some time after, often only adult white male property owners could vote; enslaved Africans, most free black people and most women were not extended the franchise. This changed state by state, beginning with the republican State of New Connecticut, soon after called [[Vermont]], which, on declaring independence of Great Britain in 1777, adopted a constitution modelled on Pennsylvanias with citizenship and democratic suffrage for males with or without property, and went on to abolish slavery. The [[American Revolution]] led to the adoption of the [[United States Constitution]] in 1787, the oldest surviving, still active, governmental [[codified constitution]]. The Constitution provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties for some, but did not end [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]] nor extend [[voting rights in the United States]], instead leaving the issue of suffrage to the individual states. Generally, states limited suffrage to white male property owners and taxpayers. At the time of the first [[1788\u201389 United States presidential election|Presidential election in 1789]], about 6% of the population was eligible to vote. The [[Naturalization Act of 1790]] limited U.S. citizenship to whites only. The [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]] in 1791 set limits on government power to protect personal freedoms but had little impact on judgements by the courts for the first 130 years after ratification.", "In 1789, [[Revolutionary France]] adopted the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] and, although short-lived, the [[National Convention]] was elected by all men in 1792. The [[Constitution of 3 May 1791|Polish-Lithuanian Constitution]] of 3 May 1791 sought to implement a more effective [[constitutional monarchy]], introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed the peasants under the protection of the government, mitigating the worst abuses of [[serfdom]]. In force for less than 19 months, it was declared null and void by the [[Grodno Sejm]] that met in 1793. Nonetheless, the 1791 Constitution helped keep alive Polish aspirations for the eventual restoration of the countrys sovereignty over a century later.", "However, in the early 19th century, little of democracy\u2014as theory, practice, or even as word\u2014remained in the North Atlantic world. During this period, [[slavery]] remained a social and economic institution in places around the world. This was particularly the case in the United States, where eight serving presidents had owned slaves, and the last fifteen [[slave states]] kept slavery legal in the American South until the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. Advocating the movement of black people from the US to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom and equality, in the 1820s the abolitionist members of the [[American Colonization Society|ACS]] established the settlement of [[Liberia]]. The United Kingdoms [[Slave Trade Act 1807]] banned the trade across the [[British Empire]], which was [[Blockade of Africa|enforced internationally]] by the Royal Navy under treaties Britain negotiated with other nations. In 1833, the UK passed the [[Slavery Abolition Act]] which took effect across the British Empire, although slavery was legally allowed to continue in areas controlled by the [[East India Company]], in [[Ceylon]], and in [[Saint Helena]] for an [[Indian Slavery Act, 1843|additional ten years]].", "In the United States, the [[1828 United States presidential election|1828 presidential election]] was the first in which non-property-holding white males could vote in the vast majority of states. Voter turnout soared during the 1830s, reaching about 80% of the adult white male population in the [[1840 United States presidential election|1840 presidential election]]. North Carolina was the last state to abolish property qualification in 1856 resulting in a close approximation to universal white male suffrage (however tax-paying requirements remained in five states in 1860 and survived in two states until the 20th century). In the [[1860 United States Census]], the slave population had grown to four million, and in [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] after the Civil War, three constitutional amendments were passed: the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]] (1865) that ended slavery; the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|14th Amendment]] (1869) that gave black people citizenship, and the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|15th Amendment]] (1870) that gave black males a nominal right to vote. Full enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the [[civil rights movement]] gained passage by the US Congress of the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]].", "The voting franchise in the United Kingdom was expanded and made more uniform in a series of reforms that began with the [[Reform Act 1832]] and continued into the 20th century, notably with the [[Representation of the People Act 1918]] and the [[Equal Franchise Act 1928]]. [[Universal male suffrage]] was established in [[France]] in March 1848 in the wake of the [[French Revolution of 1848]]. In 1848, several [[Revolutions of 1848|revolutions broke out in Europe]] as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government.", "In 1876 the Ottoman Empire transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, and held two elections the next year to elect members to her newly formed parliament. Provisional Electoral Regulations were issued, stating that the elected members of the Provincial Administrative Councils would elect members to the first [[Parliament of the Ottoman Empire|Parliament]]. Later that year, a new constitution was promulgated, which provided for a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] Parliament with a [[Senate of the Ottoman Empire|Senate]] appointed by [[Abdul Hamid II|the Sultan]] and a popularly elected [[Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)|Chamber of Deputies]]. Only men above the age of 30 who were competent in [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and had full civil rights were allowed to stand for election. Reasons for disqualification included holding dual citizenship, being employed by a foreign government, being bankrupt, employed as a servant, or having \"notoriety for ill deeds\". Full universal suffrage was achieved in 1934. ", "In 1893 the self-governing colony [[New Zealand]] became the first country in the world (except for the short-lived 18th-century Corsican Republic) to grant active [[universal suffrage]] by giving women the right to vote."], "20th and 21st centuries": ["20th-century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive \"waves of democracy\", variously resulting from wars, revolutions, [[decolonisation]], and religious and economic circumstances. Global waves of \"democratic regression\" reversing democratization, have also occurred in the 1920s and 30s, in the 1960s and 1970s, and in the 2010s.", "[[World War I]] and the dissolution of the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] and [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states from Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic.", "In the 1920s democracy flourished and [[Timeline of womens suffrage|womens suffrage]] advanced, but the [[Great Depression]] brought disenchantment and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. [[Fascism]] and dictatorships flourished in [[Nazi Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], as well as non-democratic governments in the [[Baltics]], the [[Balkans]], [[Brazil]], [[Cuba]], [[China]], and [[Japan]], among others.", "[[World War II]] brought a definitive reversal of this trend in western Europe. The [[democratisation]] of the [[Allied Control Council|American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany]] (disputed), Austria, Italy, and the [[occupied Japan]] served as a model for the later theory of [[government change]]. However, most of [[Eastern Europe]], including the [[German Democratic Republic|Soviet sector of Germany]] fell into the non-democratic [[Soviet bloc]].", "The war was followed by [[decolonisation]], and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the worlds largest democracy and continues to be so. Countries that were once part of the [[British Empire]] often adopted the British [[Westminster system]].", "By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the worlds populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in [[Communist state|\"Communist\" nations]] and the former colonies.)", "A subsequent wave of [[democratisation]] brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many nations. Portugal, Spain, and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the 1970s and 1980s. This was followed by nations in [[East Asia|East]] and [[South Asia]] by the mid-to-late 1980s.", "Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the [[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|collapse of the Soviet Union]], the associated end of the [[Cold War]], and the democratisation and [[liberalisation]] of the former [[Eastern bloc]] countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the [[European Union]]. In 1986, after the toppling of the most prominent Asian dictatorship, the only democratic state of its kind at the time emerged in the [[Philippines]] with the rise of [[Corazon Aquino]], who would later be known as the Mother of Asian Democracy.", "The liberal trend spread to some nations in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalisation include the [[Indonesian Revolution of 1998]], the [[Overthrow of Slobodan Milo\u0161evi\u0107|Bulldozer Revolution]] in [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], the [[Rose Revolution]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], the [[Orange Revolution]] in Ukraine, the [[Cedar Revolution]] in Lebanon, the [[Tulip Revolution]] in [[Kyrgyzstan]], and the [[2010\u20132011 Tunisian revolution|Jasmine Revolution]] in [[Tunisia]].", "According to Freedom House, starting in 2005, there have been eleven consecutive years in which declines in political rights and civil liberties throughout the world have outnumbered improvements, as [[Populism|populist]] and [[Nationalism|nationalist]] political forces have gained ground everywhere from Poland (under the [[Law and Justice|Law and Justice Party]]) to the Philippines (under [[Rodrigo Duterte]]).", "According to [[Freedom House]], in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). According to World Forum on Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58.2 percent of the worlds population. At the same time liberal democracies i.e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 percent of the global population.", "Most electoral democracies continue to exclude those younger than 18 from voting. The voting age has been lowered to 16 for national elections in a number of countries, including Brazil, Austria, Cuba, and Nicaragua. In California, a 2004 proposal to permit a quarter vote at 14 and a half vote at 16 was ultimately defeated. In 2008, the German parliament proposed but shelved a bill that would grant the vote to each citizen at birth, to be used by a parent until the child claims it for themselves.", "In 2007 the [[United Nations]] declared 15 September the [[International Day of Democracy]].", "In a Freedom House report released in 2018, Democracy Scores for most countries declined for the 12th consecutive year. [[The Christian Science Monitor]] reported that [[nationalist]] and [[populist]] political ideologies were gaining ground, at the expense of [[rule of law]], in countries like Poland, Turkey and Hungary. For example, in Poland, the President appointed 27 new Supreme Court judges over objections from the [[European Union]]. In Turkey, thousands of judges were removed from their positions following a [[2016 Turkish coup d\u00e9tat attempt|failed coup attempt]] during a [[2016\u2013present purges in Turkey|government crackdown]].", "[[Republic]]s, though often associated with democracy because of the shared principle of rule by [[consent of the governed]], are not necessarily democracies, as [[republicanism]] does not specify how the people are to rule."], "Early modern period": ["In 17th century England, there was [[Magna Carta#17th\u201318th centuries|renewed interest in Magna Carta]]. The Parliament of England passed the [[Petition of Right]] in 1628 which established certain liberties for subjects. The [[English Civil War]] (1642\u20131651) was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament, during which the idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the [[Putney Debates]] of 1647. Subsequently, [[the Protectorate]] (1653\u201359) and the [[English Restoration]] (1660) restored more autocratic rule, although Parliament passed the [[Habeas Corpus Act 1679|Habeas Corpus Act]] in 1679 which strengthened the convention that forbade detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence. After the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, the [[Bill of Rights 1689|Bill of Rights]] was enacted in 1689 which codified certain rights and liberties and is still in effect. The Bill set out the requirement for regular elections, rules for freedom of speech in Parliament and limited the power of the monarch, ensuring that, unlike much of Europe at the time, [[royal absolutism]] would not prevail. Economic historians [[Douglass North]] and [[Barry R. Weingast|Barry Weingast]] have characterized the institutions implemented in the Glorious Revolution as a resounding success in terms of restraining the government and ensuring protection for property rights.", "Renewed interest in the Magna Carta, the English Civil War, and the Glorious Revolution in the 17th century prompted the growth of [[political philosophy]] on the British Isles. [[Thomas Hobbes]] was the first philosopher to articulate a detailed [[social contract theory]]. Writing in [[Leviathan (Hobbes book)|Leviathan]] (1651), Hobbes theorized that individuals living in the [[state of nature]] led lives that were \"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short\" and constantly waged a [[Bellum omnium contra omnes|war of all against all]]. In order to prevent the occurrence of an anarchic state of nature, Hobbes reasoned that individuals ceded their rights to a strong, authoritarian government. Later, philosopher and physician [[John Locke]] would posit a different interpretation of social contract theory. Writing in his [[Two Treatises of Government]] (1689), Locke posited that all individuals possessed the inalienable rights to life, liberty and estate (property). According to Locke, individuals would voluntarily come together to form a state for the purposes of defending their rights. Particularly important for Locke were property rights, whose protection Locke deemed to be a governments primary purpose. Furthermore, Locke asserted that governments were [[legitimacy (political)|legitimate]] only if they held the [[consent of the governed]]. For Locke, citizens had the [[right of revolution|right to revolt]] against a government that acted against their interest or became tyrannical. Although they were not widely read during his lifetime, Lockes works are considered the founding documents of [[liberalism|liberal]] thought and profoundly influenced the leaders of the [[American Revolution]] and later the [[French Revolution]]. His liberal democratic framework of governance remains the preeminent form of democracy in the world. ", "In the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th and 17th centuries, the [[Cossack Hetmanate]] and [[Zaporizhian Sich]], the holder of the highest post of [[Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks|Hetman]] was elected by the representatives from the countrys districts.", "In North America, representative government began in [[Jamestown, Virginia]], with the election of the [[House of Burgesses]] (forerunner of the [[Virginia General Assembly]]) in 1619. English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England whose local governance was democratic; although these local assemblies had some small amounts of devolved power, the ultimate authority was held by the Crown and the English Parliament. The [[Puritans]] ([[Pilgrim Fathers]]), [[Baptists]], and [[Quakers]] who founded these colonies applied the democratic organisation of their congregations also to the administration of their communities in worldly matters."]}, "Origins": ["The term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of [[Athens]] during [[classical antiquity]]. The word comes from demos (common) people and kratos strength. Led by [[Cleisthenes]], Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508\u2013507 BC. Cleisthenes is referred to as \"the father of [[Athenian democracy]]\".", "Athenian democracy took the form of a direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features: the [[sortition|random selection]] of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices, and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. All eligible citizens were allowed to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city state. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners (\u03bc\u03ad\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9 / m\u00e9toikoi), and men under 20 years of age.", "Owning land was not a requirement for citizenship, but it did allow one to purchase land. The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war campaigns.", "Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also the most direct in the sense that the people through the assembly, [[Boule (ancient Greece)|boule]] and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for \"rights\"), the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person.", "[[Range voting]] appeared in [[Sparta]] as early as 700 BC. The [[Apella]] was an assembly of the people, held once a month, in which every male citizen of at least 30 years of age could participate. In the Apella, Spartans elected leaders and cast votes by range voting and shouting (the vote is then decided on how loudly the crowd shouts). [[Aristotle]] called this \"childish\", as compared with the stone voting ballots used by the Athenians. Sparta adopted it because of its simplicity, and to prevent any bias voting, buying, or cheating that was predominant in the early democratic elections.", "Even though the [[Roman Republic]] contributed significantly to many aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives. The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of [[gerrymandering]], so most high officials, including members of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], came from a few wealthy and noble families. In addition, the [[Overthrow of the Roman monarchy|overthrow of the Roman Kingdom]] was the first case in the Western world of a polity being formed with the explicit purpose of being a [[republic]], although it didnt have much of a democracy. The Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries, and todays modern representative democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek models because it was a state in which supreme power was held by the people and their elected representatives, and which had an elected or nominated leader.", "[[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]], capital city of the [[Vajji|Vajjian Confederacy]] of (Vrijji [[mahajanapada]]), [[India]] was also considered one of the first examples of a [[republic]] around the 6th century BCE.", "Other cultures, such as the [[Iroquois]] Nation in the Americas between around 1450 and 1600 AD also developed a form of democratic society before they came in contact with the Europeans. This indicates that forms of democracy may have been invented in other societies around the world."], "first_par": ["Historically, democracies and republics have been rare. Republican theorists linked democracy to small size: as political units grew in size, the likelihood increased that the government would turn despotic. At the same time, small political units were vulnerable to conquest. [[Montesquieu]] wrote, \"If a republic be small, it is destroyed by a foreign force; if it be large, it is ruined by an internal imperfection.\" According to Johns Hopkins University political scientist [[Daniel Deudney]], the creation of the United States, with its large size and its system of checks and balances, was a solution to the dual problems of size."]}, "Justification": {"Better decision-making": ["[[Condorcets jury theorem]] is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of [[Wisdom of the crowd|the wisdom of the crowd]]."], "Democratic peace": ["[[Democratic peace theory]] claims that liberal democracies do not go to war against each other."], "Economic success": ["In [[Why Nations Fail]], [[Daron Acemoglu]] and [[James A. Robinson (economist)|James A. Robinson]] argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor [[Monopoly|monopolies]] at the expense of the [[creative destruction]] which is necessary for sustained [[economic growth]]."], "Legitimacy": ["[[Social contract|Social contract theory]] argues that the [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy of government]] is based on [[consent of the governed]], i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the [[general will]]."], "first_par": ["Several justifications for democracy have been postulated."]}, "Measurement of democracy": {"Difficulties in measuring democracy": ["Because democracy is an overarching concept that includes the functioning of diverse institutions which are not easy to measure, strong limitations exist in quantifying and econometrically measuring the potential effects of democracy or its relationship with other phenomena\u2014whether inequality, poverty, education etc. Given the constraints in acquiring reliable data with within-country variation on aspects of democracy, academics have largely studied cross-country variations. Yet variations between democratic institutions are very large across countries which constrains meaningful comparisons using statistical approaches. Since democracy is typically measured aggregately as a macro variable using a single observation for each country and each year, studying democracy faces a range of econometric constraints and is limited to basic correlations. Cross-country comparison of a composite, comprehensive and qualitative concept like democracy may thus not always be, for many purposes, methodologically rigorous or useful."], "first_par": ["* [[Freedom in the World]] published each year since 1972 by the U.S.-based [[Freedom House]] ranks countries by political rights and [[civil liberties]] that are derived in large measure from the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]. Countries are assessed as free, partly free, or unfree.", "* [[Worldwide Press Freedom Index]] is published each year since 2002 (except that 2011 was combined with 2012) by France-based [[Reporters Without Borders]]. Countries are assessed as having a good situation, a satisfactory situation, noticeable problems, a difficult situation, or a very serious situation.", "* The [[Index of Freedom in the World]] is an index measuring classical [[civil liberties]] published by Canadas [[Fraser Institute]], Germanys Liberales Institute, and the U.S. [[Cato Institute]]. It is not currently included in the table below.", "* The [[CIRI Human Rights Data Project]] measures a range of human, civil, womens and workers rights. It is now hosted by the [[University of Connecticut]]. It was created in 1994. In its 2011 report, the U.S. was ranked 38th in overall human rights.", "* The [[Democracy Index]], published by the UK-based [[Economist Intelligence Unit]], is an assessment of countries democracy. Countries are rated to be either Full Democracies, Flawed Democracies, Hybrid Regimes, or Authoritarian regimes. Full democracies, flawed democracies, and hybrid regimes are considered to be democracies, and the authoritarian nations are considered to be dictatorial. The index is based on 60 indicators grouped in five different categories.", "* The U.S.-based [[Polity data series]] is a widely used data series in political science research. It contains coded annual information on regime authority characteristics and transitions for all independent states with greater than 500,000 total population and covers the years 1800\u20132006. Politys conclusions about a states level of democracy are based on an evaluation of that states elections for competitiveness, openness and level of participation. Data from this series is not currently included in the table below. The Polity work is sponsored by the [[Political Instability Task Force]] (PITF) which is funded by the U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. However, the views expressed in the reports are the authors alone and do not represent the views of the US Government.", "*[[MaxRange]], a dataset defining level of democracy and institutional structure(regime-type) on a 100-graded scale where every value represents a unique regime type. Values are sorted from 1\u2013100 based on level of democracy and political accountability. MaxRange defines the value corresponding to all states and every month from 1789 to 2015 and updating. MaxRange is created and developed by Max Range, and is now associated with the university of Halmstad, Sweden.", "Dieter Fuchs and Edeltraud Roller suggest that, in order to truly measure the quality of democracy, objective measurements need to be complemented by \"subjective measurements based on the perspective of citizens\". Similarly, Quinton Mayne and Brigitte Gei\u00dfel also defend that the quality of democracy does not depend exclusively on the performance of institutions, but also on the citizens own dispositions and commitment."]}, "Non-governmental democracy": ["Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many [[non-governmental organisation]]s decide policy and leadership by voting. Most [[trade union]]s and [[cooperative]]s are governed by democratic elections. [[Corporation]]s are controlled by [[shareholder]]s on the principle of [[one share, one vote]]\u2014sometimes supplemented by [[workplace democracy]]. [[Amitai Etzioni]] has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with [[sharia law]], termed islamocracy."], "Theory": {"Contemporary theory": {"Aggregative": ["The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit citizens preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on [[voting]], where the policy with the most votes gets implemented.", "Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens have given teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not \"rule\" because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded. [[Joseph Schumpeter]] articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. Contemporary proponents of minimalism include [[William H. Riker]], [[Adam Przeworski]], [[Richard Posner]].", "According to the theory of [[direct democracy]], on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socialises and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies.", "Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter\u2014with half to their left and the other half to their right. This is not a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. [[Anthony Downs]] suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments. Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy.", "[[Robert A. Dahl]] argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term [[polyarchy]] to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open [[elections]] which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. Similarly, [[Ronald Dworkin]] argues that \"democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal.\""], "Deliberative": ["[[Deliberative democracy]] is based on the notion that democracy is government by [[deliberation]]. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. If the decision-makers cannot reach [[consensus]] after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. [[Citizens assemblies|Citizens assemblies]] are considered by many scholars as practical examples of deliberative democracy, with a recent [[OECD]] report identifying citizens assemblies as an increasingly popular mechanism to involve citizens in governmental decision-making."], "Radical": ["[[Radical democracy]] is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Democracys role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes."], "first_par": ["Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of democracy: aggregative democracy, [[deliberative democracy]], and [[radical democracy]]."]}, "Early theory": ["[[Aristotle]] contrasted rule by the many (democracy/[[timocracy]]), with rule by the few ([[oligarchy]]/[[aristocracy]]), and with rule by a single person ([[tyranny]] or today [[autocracy]]/[[absolute monarchy]]). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to timocracy).", "A common view among early and renaissance [[Republicanism|Republican]] theorists was that democracy could only survive in small political communities. Heeding the lessons of the Roman Republics shift to monarchism as it grew larger or smaller, these Republican theorists held that the expansion of territory and population inevitably led to tyranny. Democracy was therefore highly fragile and rare historically, as it could only survive in small political units, which due to their size were vulnerable to conquest by larger political units. [[Montesquieu]] famously said, \"if a republic is small, it is destroyed by an outside force; if it is large, it is destroyed by an internal vice.\" [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] asserted, \"It is, therefore the natural property of small states to be governed as a republic, of middling ones to be subject to a monarch, and of large empires to be swayed by a despotic prince.\""]}, "Types of governmental democracies": {"Basic forms": {"=Parliamentary": ["Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by, or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a \"presidential rule\" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people.", "Parliamentary systems have the right to dismiss a Prime Minister at any point in time that they feel he or she is not doing their job to the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a Vote of No Confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from office by a majority support for his or her dismissal. In some countries, the Prime Minister can also call an election whenever he or she so chooses, and typically the Prime Minister will hold an election when he or she knows that they are in good favour with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies, extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. An important feature of the parliamentary democracy is the concept of the \"[[loyal opposition]]\". The essence of the concept is that the second largest political party (or coalition) opposes the governing party (or coalition), while still remaining loyal to the state and its democratic principles."], "=Presidential": ["Presidential Democracy is a system where the public elects the president through free and fair elections. The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. Elections typically have a fixed date and arent easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, specifically appointing the cabinet members.", "The president cannot be easily removed from office by the legislature, but he or she cannot remove members of the legislative branch any more easily. This provides some measure of [[separation of powers]]. In consequence, however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas, Africa, and Central and Southeast Asia.", "A [[semi-presidential system]] is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country."], "Direct": ["# Change constitutional laws,", "# Put forth [[initiative]]s, [[referendum]]s and suggestions for laws,", "# Give binding orders to elective officials, such as revoking them before the end of their elected term or initiating a lawsuit for breaking a campaign promise.", "Within modern-day representative governments, certain electoral tools like referendums, citizens initiatives and [[recall election]]s are referred to as forms of direct democracy. However, some advocates of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussion. Direct democracy as a government system currently exists in the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Cantons of Switzerland|cantons]] of [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]] and [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]], the [[Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities]], communities affiliated with the [[CIPO-RFM]], the [[Bolivia]]n city councils of [[Fejuve|FEJUVE]], and Kurdish cantons of [[Rojava]]."], "Hybrid or semi-direct": ["Some modern democracies that are predominantly representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed hybrid democracies, semi-direct democracies or participatory democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some [[U.S. state]]s, where frequent use is made of [[referendum]]s and [[initiatives]].", "The [[Swiss confederation]] is a semi-direct democracy. At the federal level, citizens can propose changes to the constitution ([[federal popular initiative]]) or ask for a [[Optional referendum|referendum]] to be held on any law voted by the [[Federal Assembly (Switzerland)|parliament]]. Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, to answer 103 questions (during the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums). Although in the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum. The populace has been conservative, approving only about 10% of the initiatives put before them; in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government.", "Examples include the extensive use of [[referendum]]s in the US state of [[California]], which is a state that has more than 20 million voters.", "In [[New England]], [[Town meeting]]s are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local [[direct democracy]] and a representative state government. For example, most [[Vermont]] towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard on political matters."], "Representative": ["Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also [[Democratically elected government|democratically elected]] then it is called a democratic [[republic]]. The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] of the votes. Most western countries have representative systems.", "Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or [[constituency]]), or represent the entire electorate through [[Proportional representation|proportional]] systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as [[referendum]]s. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the peoples interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so. Such reasons have driven criticism upon representative democracy, pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracy"], "first_par": ["Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will. One form of democracy is [[direct democracy]], in which all eligible citizens have active participation in the political decision making, for example voting on policy initiatives directly. In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called a [[representative democracy]]."]}, "Variants": {"Anarchist": ["[[Anarchism|Anarchists]] are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a [[Tyranny of the majority|majority-rule is tyrannic or not]]. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. However, [[anarcho-communist]] [[Murray Bookchin]] criticised [[individualist anarchists]] for opposing democracy, and says \"majority rule\" is consistent with anarchism.", "Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of [[consensus democracy]], similar to Proudhons position on direct democracy. [[Henry David Thoreau]], who did not self-identify as an anarchist but argued for \"a better government\" and is cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that people should not be in the position of ruling others or being ruled when there is no consent."], "Consensus democracy": ["A consensus democracy, in contrast, would not be dichotomous. Instead, decisions would be based on a multi-option approach, and policies would be enacted if they gained sufficient support, either in a purely verbal agreement or via a consensus vote\u2014a multi-option preference vote. If the threshold of support were at a sufficiently high level, minorities would be as it were protected automatically. Furthermore, any voting would be ethno-colour blind."], "Consociational": ["A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them."], "Constitutional monarchy": ["Many countries such as the [[United Kingdom]], [[Spain]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian countries]], [[Thailand]], [[Japan]] and [[Bhutan]] turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles. For example, in the predecessor states to the [[United Kingdom]], constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 and passage of the [[Bill of Rights 1689]].", "In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in [[France]], [[China]], [[Russia]], [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], [[Italy]], [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]]). An elected president, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries.", "Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many nations. Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British [[House of Lords]]) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the [[Australian Senate]])."], "Cosmopolitan": ["Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as Global democracy or World Federalism, is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them.", "According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing [[international organisations]], e.g. the [[United Nations]], as well as the creation of new institutions such as a [[World Parliament]], which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics.", "Cosmopolitan Democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein, writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist [[George Monbiot]], and professors [[David Held]] and [[Daniele Archibugi]]. The creation of the [[International Criminal Court]] in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy."], "Creative democracy": ["Creative Democracy is advocated by American philosopher [[John Dewey]]. The main idea about Creative Democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of \"Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us\" and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Deweys view, is a [[Morality|moral ideal]] requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. \"The task of democracy\", Dewey concludes, \"is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute\"."], "Guided democracy": ["Guided democracy is a form of democracy which incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully \"guides\" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner which may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a \"Guided democracy.\" Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government."], "Inclusive": ["Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for [[direct democracy]] in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, [[economic democracy]] in a [[Stateless society|stateless]], moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. [[Workers self-management|self-management]] in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher [[Takis Fotopoulos]] in \"Towards An Inclusive Democracy\" and was further developed in the journal [[Democracy & Nature]] and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy.", "The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive democracy is the demotic assembly, i.e. the assembly of demos, the citizen body in a given geographical area which may encompass a town and the surrounding villages, or even neighbourhoods of large cities. An inclusive democracy today can only take the form of a confederal democracy that is based on a network of administrative councils whose members or delegates are elected from popular face-to-face democratic assemblies in the various demoi. Thus, their role is purely administrative and practical, not one of policy-making like that of representatives in representative democracy.", "The citizen body is advised by experts but it is the citizen body which functions as the ultimate decision-taker. Authority can be delegated to a segment of the citizen body to carry out specific duties, for example, to serve as members of popular courts, or of regional and confederal councils. Such delegation is made, in principle, by lot, on a rotation basis, and is always recallable by the citizen body. Delegates to regional and confederal bodies should have specific mandates."], "Liberal democracy": ["A liberal democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the [[rule of law]], and moderated by a constitution or laws that emphasise the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see [[civil liberties]]).", "In a liberal democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to [[Emergent democracy|emerge]] from the many individual decisions that citizens are free to make. In other words, citizens can \"vote with their feet\" or \"vote with their dollars\", resulting in significant informal government-by-the-masses that exercises many \"powers\" associated with formal government elsewhere."], "Participatory politics": ["A [[Parpolity]] or Participatory Polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a [[Parpolity|Nested Council]] structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25\u201350 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council.", "A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the [[tyranny of the majority]], and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of most lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a [[participatory economy]]."], "Republic": ["The term [[republic]] has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected [[head of state]], such as a [[President (government title)|president]], serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary [[monarch]] as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed [[head of government]] such as a [[Prime Minister|prime minister]].", "The [[Founding Fathers of the United States]] rarely praised and often criticised democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy, often without the protection of a constitution enshrining basic rights; [[James Madison]] argued, especially in [[Federalist No. 10|The Federalist No. 10]], that what distinguished a direct democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure.", "What was critical to American values, [[John Adams]] insisted, was that the government be \"bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend.\" As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the U.S. constitution, [[Elizabeth Willing Powel]] asked him \"Well, Doctor, what have we got\u2014a republic or a monarchy?\". He replied \"A republic\u2014if you can keep it.\""], "Socialist": ["[[Socialism|Socialist]] thought has several different views on democracy. [[Social democracy]], [[democratic socialism]], and the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] (usually exercised through [[Soviet democracy]]) are some examples. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of [[participatory democracy|participatory]], [[industrial democracy|industrial]], [[economic democracy|economic]] and/or [[workplace democracy]] combined with a [[representative democracy]].", "Within [[Democracy in Marxist theory|Marxist orthodoxy]] there is a hostility to what is commonly called \"liberal democracy\", which is simply referred to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralised nature. Because of orthodox Marxists desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, [[Marxism|Marxists]], [[Leninism|Leninists]] and [[Trotskyism|Trotskyists]] believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of [[commune (Socialism)|communes]] (which are sometimes called [[Soviet (council)|soviets]]). This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy."], "Sortition": ["Sometimes called \"democracy without elections\", [[sortition]] chooses decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impartial than an elected official. The technique was in widespread use in [[Athenian Democracy]] and [[Republic of Florence|Renaissance Florence]] and is still used in modern [[jury selection]]."], "Supranational": ["[[Qualified majority voting]] is designed by the [[Treaty of Rome]] to be the principal method of reaching decisions in the [[European Council of Ministers]]. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected."]}, "first_par": ["Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not structured to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the [[separation of powers]] in its favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy.", "The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system."]}, "first_par": ["Democracy is a form of [[government]] in which [[people|the people]] have the [[authority]] to choose their governing [[legislators]]. The decisions on who is considered part of the people and how authority is shared among or delegated by the people have changed over time and at different speeds in different countries, but they have included more and more of the inhabitants of all countries. Cornerstones include [[freedom of assembly]] and [[freedom of speech|speech]], [[Social exclusion#Social inclusion|inclusiveness]] and [[political equality|equality]], [[citizenship|membership]], [[consent of the governed|consent]], [[voting rights|voting]], [[right to life]] and [[minority rights]].", "The notion of democracy has evolved over time considerably,", "and, generally, the two current types of democracy are direct and representative. In a [[direct democracy]], the people directly [[deliberate]] and decide on legislation. In a [[representative democracy]], the people elect representatives to deliberate and decide on legislation, such as in [[parliamentary democracy|parliamentary]] or [[presidential democracy]]. [[Liquid democracy]] combines elements of these two basic types. ", "Prevalent day-to-day decision making of democracies is the [[majority rule]], though other decision making approaches like [[supermajority]] and [[consensus democracy|consensus]] have been equally integral to democracies. They serve the crucial purpose of inclusiveness and broader legitimacy on sensitive issues, counterbalancing [[majoritarianism]], and therefore mostly take precedence on a constitutional level.", "In the common variant of [[liberal democracy]], the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the [[constitution]] limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association. Besides these general types of democracy, there have been a wealth of further types ([[#Types of governmental democracies|see below]]). ", "Democracy makes all forces struggle repeatedly to realize their interests and devolves power from groups of people to sets of rules. [[Western democracy]], as distinct from that which existed in antiquity, is generally considered to have originated in [[city-states]] such as [[Classical Athens]] and the [[Roman Republic]], where various schemes and degrees of enfranchisement of the free male population were observed before the form disappeared in [[Western world|the West]] at the beginning of [[late antiquity]]. The English word dates back to the 16th century, from the older [[Middle French]] and [[Middle Latin]] equivalents.", "According to American political scientist [[Larry Diamond]], democracy consists of four key elements: a political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair [[election]]s; the active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life; protection of the [[human rights]] of all citizens; and a [[rule of law]], in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens. Todd Landman, nevertheless, draws our attention to the fact that democracy and [[human rights]] are two different concepts and that \"there must be greater specificity in the conceptualisation and operationalisation of democracy and human rights\".", "The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in [[Greek city-state]]s, notably [[Classical Athens|Athens]], to mean \"rule of the people\", in contrast to [[aristocracy]], meaning \"rule of an elite\". While theoretically, these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically. The political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship consisted of an elite class, until full enfranchisement was won for all adult citizens in most modern democracies through the [[suffrage]] movements of the 19th and 20th centuries.", "Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an individual, as in an [[absolute monarchy]], or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an [[oligarchy]]. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic and monarchic elements. [[Karl Popper]] defined democracy in contrast to [[dictatorship]] or [[Tyrant|tyranny]], thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a [[revolution]]."]}, "main_pages": {"=Parliamentary": ["Parliamentary system"], "=Presidential": ["Presidential system"], "Consensus democracy": [" Consensus democracy"], "Consociational": ["Consociational democracy"], "Cosmopolitan": ["Cosmopolitan democracy"], "Creative democracy": ["Creative democracy"], "Criticism": ["Criticism of democracy"], "Direct": ["Direct democracy"], "Guided democracy": ["Guided democracy"], "History": ["History of democracy"], "Inclusive": ["Inclusive democracy"], "Opposition": ["Anti-democratic thought"], "Participatory politics": ["Participatory politics"], "Representative": ["Representative democracy"], "Republic": ["Republicanism"], "Sortition": ["Sortition"]}}, "Monarchy": {"page_content": {"Characteristics and role": {"Dependent monarchies": ["In some cases monarchs are dependent on other powers (see [[vassal]]s, [[suzerainty]], [[puppet state]], [[hegemony]]). In the British colonial era [[indirect rule]] under a [[paramount power]] existed, such as the [[princely state]]s under the [[British Raj]].", "In [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]], [[Ghana]] and [[Uganda]], the ancient kingdoms and [[chiefdom]]s that were met by the colonialists when they first arrived on the continent are now constitutionally protected as regional or sectional entities.", "Furthermore, in [[Nigeria]], though the hundreds of [[List of Nigerian traditional states|sub-regional polities]] that exist there are not provided for in the current constitution, they are nevertheless legally recognised aspects of the structure of governance that operates in the nation. For example, the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] city-state of [[Akure Kingdom|Akure]] in south-western Nigeria is something of an elective monarchy: its reigning [[Oba (ruler)|Oba]] [[Deji of Akure|Deji]] has to be chosen by an electoral college of [[Nigerian chieftaincy|nobles]] from amongst a finite collection of royal princes of the realm upon the death or removal of an incumbent.", "In addition to these five countries, dependent monarchies of varied sizes and complexities exist all over the rest of the continent of [[Africa]]."], "Person of monarch": ["Most monarchies only have a single person acting as monarch at any given time, although two monarchs have ruled simultaneously in some countries, a situation known as [[diarchy]]. Historically this was the case in the ancient [[Greek city-state]] of [[Sparta]]. There are examples of joint sovereignty of spouses, parent and child or other relatives (such as [[William III of England|William III]] and [[Mary II]] in the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of England|England]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]], [[tsar]]s [[Peter the Great|Peter I]] and [[Ivan V of Russia]], and [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I]] and [[Joanna of Castile]]).", "[[Andorra]] currently is the worlds only constitutional diarchy, a co-principality. Located in the [[Pyrenees]] between [[Spain]] and [[France]], it has two co-princes: the [[bishop of Urgell]] in Spain (a [[prince-bishop]]) and the [[president of France]] (derived ex officio from the French kings, who themselves inherited the title from the counts of Foix). It is the only case in which an independent countrys (co-)monarch is [[Democracy|democratically]] elected by the citizens of another country.", "In a [[personal union]], separate independent states share the same person as monarch, but each realm retains separate laws and government. The sixteen separate [[Commonwealth realm]]s are sometimes described as being in a personal union with Queen Elizabeth II as monarch; however, they can also be described as being in a shared monarchy.", "A [[regent]] may rule when the monarch is a [[Minor (law)|minor]], absent, or debilitated.", "A [[pretender]] is a claimant to an abolished throne or a throne already occupied by somebody else.", "[[Abdication]] is the act of formally giving up ones monarchical power and status.", "Monarchs may mark the ceremonial beginning of their reigns with a [[coronation]] or [[enthronement]]."], "Powers of the monarch": ["* In an [[absolute monarchy]], the monarch rules as an [[Autocracy|autocrat]], with absolute power over the state and government\u2014for example, the right to [[rule by decree]], promulgate [[law]]s, and impose [[punishment]]s.", "* In a [[constitutional monarchy]], the monarchs power is subject to a [[constitution]]. In most current constitutional monarchies, the monarch is mainly a ceremonial [[figurehead]] [[symbol]] of national unity and state continuity. Although nominally [[sovereignty|sovereign]], the electorate (through the [[legislature]]) exercises political sovereignty. Constitutional monarchs [[political power]] is limited. Typical monarchical powers include granting [[pardon]]s, granting [[honour system|honours]], and [[reserve power]]s, e.g. to dismiss the [[prime minister]], refuse to dissolve parliament, or [[veto]] legislation (\"withhold [[Royal Assent]]\"). They often also have privileges of inviolability and [[sovereign immunity]]. A monarchs powers and influence will depend on tradition, precedent, popular opinion, and [[law]].", "** [[Semi-constitutional monarchy|Semi-constitutional monarchies]] exhibit fewer parliamentary powers or simply monarchs with more authority. The term \"[[parliamentary monarchy]]\" may be used to differentiate from semi-constitutional monarchies.", "* Monarchical reign has often been linked with [[Military dictatorship|military authority]]. In the late [[Roman Empire]], the [[Praetorian Guard]] several times deposed [[Roman Emperor]]s and installed new emperors. Similarly, in the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], the [[Ghilman]]s (slave soldiers) deposed Caliphs once they became prominent, allowing new ones to come to power. The Hellenistic kings of [[Macedon]] and of [[Epirus]] were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the [[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|ecclesia]] of [[democracies]], the council of all free citizens; military service was often linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house. The military has dominated the monarch in modern [[Thailand]] and in [[medieval Japan]] (where a hereditary military chief, the [[sh\u014dgun]], was the de facto ruler, although the [[Emperor of Japan|Japanese emperor]] nominally reigned). In [[Italian fascism|Fascist Italy]], the [[House of Savoy|Savoy]] monarchy under King [[Victor Emmanuel III]] coexisted with the [[Italian Fascist Party|Fascist]] single-party rule of [[Benito Mussolini]]; [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] under the [[Iron Guard]] and [[Kingdom of Greece (Gl\u00fccksburg)|Greece]] during the first months of the [[Greek military junta of 1967\u20131974|Colonels regime]] were similar. [[Spain under Franco|Spain under Francisco Franco]] was officially a monarchy, although there was no monarch on the throne. Upon his death, Franco was succeeded as head of state by the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] heir, [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos I]], and [[Spanish transition to democracy|Spain became a democracy]] with the king as a figurehead constitutional monarch."], "Role of monarch": ["Monarchy, especially absolute monarchy, is sometimes linked to [[Religion|religious]] aspects; many monarchs once claimed the right to rule by the will of a [[deity]] ([[Divine Right of Kings]], [[Mandate of Heaven]]), or a special connection to a deity ([[sacred king]]), or even purported to be divine kings, or [[incarnation]]s of deities themselves ([[imperial cult]]). Many European monarchs have been styled [[Fidei defensor]] (Defender of the Faith); some hold official positions relating to the [[state religion]] or established church.", "In the Western political tradition, a morally based, balanced monarchy was stressed as the ideal form of government, and little attention was paid to modern-day ideals of egalitarian democracy: e.g. [[Saint Thomas Aquinas]] unapologetically declared: \"Tyranny is wont to occur not less but more frequently on the basis of polyarchy [rule by many, i.e. oligarchy or democracy] than on the basis of monarchy.\" (On Kingship). However, Thomas Aquinas also stated that the ideal monarchical system would also have at lower levels of government both an aristocracy and elements of democracy in order to create a balance of power. The monarch would also be subject to both natural and divine law, and to the [[Catholic Church|Church]] in matters of religion.", "In [[Dante Alighieri]]s De Monarchia, a spiritualised, imperial Catholic monarchy is strongly promoted according to a [[Ghibelline]] world-view in which the \"royal religion of [[Melchizedek]]\" is emphasised against the priestly claims of the rival papal ideology.", "In [[Saudi Arabia]], the [[King of Saudi Arabia|king]] is a head of state who is both the absolute monarch of the country and the [[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques]] of Islam (\u062e\u0627\u062f\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0641\u064a\u0646)."], "Statehood": ["Monarchies pre-date [[polity|polities]] like [[nation state]]s and even [[territorial state]]s. A [[nation]] or constitution is not necessary in a monarchy since a person, the monarch, binds the separate territories and [[Legitimacy (political)|political legitimacy]] (e.g. in personal union) together.", "Monarchies, though, have applied [[National symbol|state symbols]] like [[insignia]] or abstracts like the concept of [[the Crown]] to create a state identity, which is to be carried and occupied by the monarch, but represents the monarchy even in absence and [[Monarchy#Succession|succession]] of the monarch.", "Nevertheless monarchies can also be bound to [[territory|territories]] (e.g., the [[King of Norway]]) and [[popular monarchy|peoples]] (e.g., the [[Monarchy of Belgium|King of the Belgians]])."], "Titles of monarchs": ["Monarchs can have various [[title]]s. Common European titles of monarchs (in that hierarchical order of nobility) are [[emperor]] or [[empress]] (from [[Latin]]: [[imperator]] or imperatrix), [[king]] or [[Queen regnant|queen]], [[grand duke]] or [[grand duchess]], [[prince]] or [[princess]], [[duke]] or [[duchess]]. Some [[early modern]] European titles (especially in German states) included [[prince-elector|elector]] (German:, Prince-Elector, literally \"electing prince\"), [[margrave]] (German:, equivalent to the French title marquis, literally \"count of the borderland\"), and [[burgrave]] (German:, literally \"count of the castle\"). Lesser titles include [[count]] and [[princely count]]. Slavic titles include [[knyaz]] and [[tsar]] (\u0446\ufe22\u0440\u044c) or [[Tsarina|tsaritsa]] (\u0446\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430), a word derived from the [[Roman Empire|Roman imperial]] title [[Caesar]].", "In the [[Muslim world]], titles of monarchs include [[caliph]] (successor to the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] and a leader of the entire Muslim community), [[padishah]] (emperor), [[sultan]] or [[Sultana (title)|sultana]], [[Shah|sh\u00e2hansh\u00e2h]] (emperor), [[shah]], [[malik]] (king) or [[malik]]ah (queen), [[emir]] (commander, prince) or [[emir]]a (princess), [[sheikh]] or [[sheikh]]a, [[imam]] (used in [[Oman]]). East Asian titles of monarchs include [[Emperor of China|hu\u00e1ngd\u00ec]] (emperor or empress regnant), [[Son of Heaven|ti\u0101nz\u01d0]] (son of heaven), [[Emperor of Japan|tenn\u014d]] (emperor) or [[Empress of Japan|josei tenn\u014d]] (empress regnant), [[Joseon|wang]] (king) or yeowang (queen regnant), [[Korean Empire|hwangje]] (emperor) or [[Korean Empire|yeohwang]] (empress regnant). South Asian and South East Asian titles included [[Maharaja|mah\u0101r\u0101ja]] ( high king) or maharani ( high queen), [[raja]] (king) and [[rana (title)|rana]] (king) or [[rani]] (queen) and ratu (South East Asian queen). Historically, [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] monarchs have used the title [[Khan (title)|khan]] and [[khagan]] (emperor) or [[khatun]] and [[khanum]]; [[Ancient Egypt]]ian monarchs have used the title [[pharaoh]] for men and women. In [[Ethiopian Empire]], monarchs used title [[Emperor of Ethiopia|n\u0259gus\u00e4 n\u00e4g\u00e4st]] (king of kings) or [[Emperor of Ethiopia|n\u0259g\u0259st\u00e4 n\u00e4g\u00e4st]] (queen of kings).", "Many monarchs are addressed with particular [[Style (manner of address)|styles]] or manners of address, like \"[[Majesty]]\", \"[[Royal Highness]]\", \"[[By the Grace of God]]\", [[Amir al-Muminin|Am\u012br al-Mumin\u012bn]] (\"Leader of the Faithful\"), [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|H\u00fcnkar-i Khanedan-i \u00c2l-i Osman]], \"Sovereign of the Sublime House of Osman\"), [[Malay styles and titles|Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda]] (\"[[Majesty]]\"), Jeonha (\"[[Majesty]]\"), Tenn\u014d Heika (literally \"His Majesty the heavenly sovereign\"), B\u00ecxi\u00e0 (\"Bottom of the Steps\").", "Sometimes titles are used to express claims to territories that are not held in fact (for example, [[English claims to the French throne]]), or titles not recognised ([[antipope]]s). Also, after a monarchy is deposed, often former monarchs and their descendants are given alternative titles (the [[King of Portugal]] was given the hereditary title [[Duke of Braganza]])."], "first_par": ["Monarchies are associated with [[Hereditary monarchy|hereditary reign]], in which monarchs reign for life and the responsibilities and power of the position pass to their child or another member of their family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a [[royal family]], the centre of the [[royal household]] and [[Noble court|court]]. Growing up in a royal family (called a [[dynasty]] when it continues for several [[generation]]s), [[heir apparent|future monarchs]] are often trained for their expected future responsibilities as monarch.", "Different systems of hereditary [[Order of succession|succession]] have been used, such as [[proximity of blood]], [[primogeniture]], and [[agnatic seniority]] ([[Salic law]]). While most monarchs in history have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned. The term \"[[queen regnant]]\" refers to a ruling monarch, while \"[[queen consort]]\" refers to the wife of a reigning king. Rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy: there have been some [[family dictatorship]]s (and also [[Political family|political families]]) in many [[Democracy|democracies]].", "The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership (as evidenced in the classic phrase \"[[The King is dead. Long live the King!]]\").", "Some monarchies are not hereditary. In an [[elective monarchy]], monarchs are [[Election|elected]] or appointed by some body (an [[electoral college]]) for life or a defined period. Four elective monarchies exist today: [[Cambodia]], [[Malaysia]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] are 20th-century creations, while one (the [[Pope|papacy]]) is ancient.", "A [[self-proclaimed monarchy]] is established when a person claims the monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty. There are examples of republican leaders who have proclaimed themselves monarchs: [[Napoleon I of France]] declared himself [[List of French monarchs|Emperor of the French]] and ruled the [[First French Empire]] after having held the title of [[First Consul]] of the [[First French Republic|French Republic]] for five years from his seizing power in the coup of [[18 Brumaire]]. President [[Jean-B\u00e9del Bokassa]] of the [[Central African Republic]] declared himself Emperor of the [[Central African Empire]] in 1976. [[Yuan Shikai]], the first formal President of the [[Republic of China (1912\u20131949)|Republic of China]], crowned himself Emperor of the short-lived \"[[Empire of China (1915\u20131916)|Empire of China]]\" a few years after the Republic of China was founded."]}, "Current monarchies": {"Commonwealth realms": ["[[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] is, separately, monarch of sixteen [[Commonwealth realm]]s ([[Antigua and Barbuda]], the [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]], the [[The Bahamas|Commonwealth of the Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Canada]], [[Grenada]], [[Jamaica]], [[New Zealand]], the [[Papua New Guinea|Independent State of Papua New Guinea]], the [[Saint Kitts and Nevis|Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Tuvalu]] and the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]). They evolved out of the [[British Empire]] into fully independent states within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] that retain the Queen as head of state. All sixteen realms are constitutional monarchies and full democracies where the Queen has limited powers or a largely ceremonial role. The Queen is head of the [[Church of England]] (the [[established church]] of England), while the other 15 realms do not have a [[state religion]]."], "East and Southeast Asian constitutional monarchies": ["The [[Kingdom of Bhutan]], the [[Kingdom of Cambodia]], the [[Kingdom of Thailand]] and [[Japan]] are constitutional monarchies where the monarch has a limited or merely ceremonial role. Japan changed from traditional absolute monarchy into a constitutional one during the 20th century, and Bhutan made the change in 2008. Cambodia had its own monarchy after independence from the [[French Colonial Empire]], but it was deposed after the [[Khmer Rouge]] came into power. The monarchy was subsequently restored in the peace agreement of 1993. Thailand transitioned into a constitutional monarchy over the course of the 20th Century."], "European monarchies in which the monarch retains more powers": ["The [[Liechtenstein|Principality of Liechtenstein]] and the [[Monaco|Principality of Monaco]] are constitutional monarchies in which the prince retains substantial powers. For example, the [[Liechtenstein constitutional referendum, 2003|2003 Constitution referendum]] gave the [[Prince of Liechtenstein]] the power to veto any law that the [[Landtag]] (parliament) proposes, while the Landtag can veto any law that the Prince tries to pass. The prince can appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee. However, he is not an absolute monarch, as the people can call for a referendum to end the monarchs reign. When Hereditary Prince Alois threatened to veto a referendum to legalize abortion in 2011, it came as a surprise because the prince had not vetoed any law for over 30 years. The [[prince of Monaco]] has simpler powers; he cannot appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee to or from his or her post, but he can elect the [[Minister of State of Monaco|minister of state]], [[Politics of Monaco|government council]] and judges. Both [[Albert II, Prince of Monaco]], and [[Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein]], are theoretically very powerful within their small states, but they have very limited power compared to the Islamic monarchs (see below). They also own huge tracts of land and are shareholders in many companies."], "Islamic monarchies": ["The Islamic monarchs of the [[Kingdom of Bahrain]], the [[State of Brunei Darussalam]], the [[Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan]], the [[State of Kuwait]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Kingdom of Morocco]], the [[Sultanate of Oman]], the [[State of Qatar]], the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]] generally retain far more powers than their European or Commonwealth counterparts. Brunei Darussalam, Oman, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia remain absolute monarchies; Bahrain, Kuwait, and United Arab Emirates are classified as mixed, meaning there are representative bodies of some kind, but the monarch retains most of his powers. Jordan, Malaysia, and Morocco are constitutional monarchies, but their monarchs still retain more substantial powers than European equivalents."], "Other European constitutional monarchies": ["The [[Principality of Andorra]], the [[Kingdom of Belgium]], the [[Kingdom of Denmark]], the [[Grand Duchy of Luxembourg]], the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], the [[Kingdom of Norway]], the [[Kingdom of Spain]], and the [[Kingdom of Sweden]] are fully democratic states in which the monarch has a limited or largely ceremonial role. In some cases, there is a Christian religion established as the official church in each of these countries. This is the Lutheran form of [[Protestantism]] in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, while Andorra is a [[Roman Catholic]] country. Spain, Belgium, and the Netherlands have no official state religion. Luxembourg, which is predominantly Roman Catholic, has five so-called officially recognised cults of national importance (Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Greek Orthodoxy, Judaism, and Islam), a status which gives to those religions some privileges like the payment of a state salary to their priests.", "* neither of the co-princes is of Andorran descent;", "* one is elected by citizens of a foreign country (France), but not by Andorrans as they cannot vote in the French presidential elections; and", "* the other, the bishop of Urgel, is appointed by a foreign head of state, the pope."], "Other monarchies": ["Five monarchies do not fit into any of the above groups by virtue of geography or class of monarchy: the [[Kingdom of Tonga]] in [[Polynesia]]; the [[Kingdom of Eswatini]] and the [[Kingdom of Lesotho]] in Africa; the [[Vatican City State]] in Europe and the [[Sovereign Military Order of Malta]]. Of these, Lesotho and Tonga are constitutional monarchies, while Eswatini and the Vatican City are absolute monarchies. Eswatini is unique among these monarchies, often being considered a [[diarchy]]: the King, or [[Ngwenyama]], rules alongside his mother, the [[Ndlovukati]], as dual heads of state. This was originally intended to provide a check on political power. The Ngwenyama, however, is considered the administrative head of state, while the Ndlovukati is considered the spiritual and national head of state, a position which more or less has become symbolic in recent years. The [[Pope]] is the absolute monarch of the Vatican City State (a separate entity from the [[Holy See]]) by virtue of his position as head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and Bishop of Rome; he is an elected rather than a hereditary ruler and does not have to be a citizen of the territory prior to his election by the cardinals. The Order of Malta describes itself as a \"sovereign subject\" based on its unique history and unusual present circumstances, but its exact status in international law is subject of debate. [[Samoa]], the position is described in Part III of the 1960 Samoan constitution. At the time the constitution was adopted, it was anticipated that future heads of state would be chosen from among the four Tama a Aiga \"royal\" paramount chiefs. However, this is not required by the constitution, so, for this reason, Samoa can be considered a republic rather than a [[constitutional monarchy]].", "The [[Kim dynasty (North Korea)|ruling Kim family]] in [[North Korea]] ([[Kim Il-sung]], [[Kim Jong-il]] and [[Kim Jong-un]]) has been described as a de facto [[absolute monarchy]] or a \"[[hereditary dictatorship]]\". In 2013, Clause 2 of Article 10 of the new edited Ten Fundamental Principles of the [[Workers Party of Korea|Korean Workers Party]] states that the party and revolution must be carried \"eternally\" by the \"[[Baekdu]] (Kims) bloodline\".", "This also happened in [[Azerbaijan]], when [[Heydar Aliyev]], the president of Azerbaijan, died. He was succeeded by his son [[Ilham Aliyev|Ilham]]. But it is referred as an [[hereditary dictatorship|Monarch President]]."]}, "Etymology": ["The word \"monarch\" comes from the [[Greek language|Ancient Greek]] word , derived from  and : compare . It referred to a single at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word monarchy usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule, as elective monarchies are quite rare."], "History": ["The similar form of societal hierarchy known as [[chiefdom]] or [[tribal kingship]] is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt]] and the [[Indus Valley Civilization]]. In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies. Some of the oldest recorded and evidenced monarchies were [[Narmer]], [[Pharaoh]] of Ancient Egypt c. 3100 BCE, and [[Enmebaragesi]], a [[Sumer]]ian King of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] c. 2600 BCE.", "From earliest historical times, with the [[Pharaoh|Egyptian]], [[Lugal|Mesopotamian]], [[Sudanic languages|Sudanic]], reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European religion]], and others, the king held [[sacral kingship|sacral functions]] directly connected to [[sacrifice]] or was considered by their people to have [[imperial cult|divine ancestry]]. In [[Germanic antiquity]], [[Germanic king|kingship]] was primarily a sacral function. The king was directly hereditary for some tribes, while for others he was elected from among eligible members of royal families by the [[thing (assembly)|thing]]. The role of the Roman emperor as the protector of [[State church of the Roman Empire|Christianity]] led eventually to monarchs ruling by the Grace of God in the Christian Middle Ages, only later in the Early modern period there being a conflation of (increased) power with these sacral aspects held by the [[Germanic king]]s bringing forth the notion of the \"[[divine right of kings]]\". The [[Japanese emperor|Japanese]] and [[Kingdom of Nepal|Nepalese]] monarchs continued to be considered [[List of people who have been considered deities|living Gods]] into the modern period.", "[[Polybius]] identified monarchy as one of three \"benign\" basic forms of government (monarchy, [[aristocracy]], and [[Democracy#Ancient origins|democracy]]), opposed to the three \"malignant\" basic forms of government ([[Tyrant|tyranny]], [[oligarchy]], and [[ochlocracy]]). The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as \"[[king (title)|king]]\" or \"ruler\" (translating [[archon]], [[basileus]], [[rex (title)|rex]], [[Tyrant|tyrannos]], etc.) or as \"[[Queen regnant|queen]]\" ([[basilinna]]). Polybius originally understood monarchy as a component of republics, but since antiquity monarchy has contrasted with forms of republic, where executive power is wielded by free citizens and their assemblies. The 4th-century BCE Hindu text [[Arthasastra]] laid out the ethics of monarchism. In antiquity, some monarchies were [[Abolished monarchy|abolished]] in favour of such assemblies in [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] ([[Roman Republic]], 509 BCE), and [[Ancient Athens|Athens]] ([[Athenian democracy]], 500 BCE).", "By the 17th century, monarchy was challenged by evolving [[parliamentarism]] e.g. through regional assemblies (such as the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]], the Swiss [[Landsgemeinde]] and later [[Tagsatzung]], and the High Medieval [[Medieval commune|communal movement]] linked to the rise of medieval [[town privileges]]) and by modern anti-monarchism e.g. of the temporary overthrow of the [[English monarchy]] by the [[Parliament of England]] in 1649, the [[American Revolution]] of 1776 and the [[French Revolution]] of 1789. One of many opponents of that trend was [[Elizabeth Dawbarn]], whose anonymous Dialogue between Clara Neville and Louisa Mills, on Loyalty (1794) features \"silly Louisa, who admires liberty, [[Tom Paine]] and the USA, [who is] lectured by Clara on Gods approval of monarchy\" and on the influence women can exert on men.", "Since then advocacy of the abolition of a monarchy or respectively of [[republic]]s has been called [[republicanism]], while the advocacy of monarchies is called [[monarchism]]. As such republics have become the opposing and alternative form of government to monarchy, despite some having seen [[President for life#Similarity to a monarch|infringements]] through lifelong or even hereditary heads of state.", "With the rise of republicanism a diverse division between republicanism developed in the 19th-century politics (such as anti-monarchist [[Radicalism (historical)|radicalism]]) and [[Conservativism|conservative]] or even [[reactionary]] [[monarchism]]. In the following 20th century many countries [[abolished monarchy]] and became republics, especially in the wake of [[World War I]] and [[World War II]].", "Today forty-five sovereign nations in the world have a [[List of current sovereign monarchs|monarch]], including sixteen [[Commonwealth realm]]s that have [[Elizabeth II]] as the head of state. Most modern monarchs are [[constitutional monarch]]s, who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political power under a constitution. Many are so-called [[crowned republic]]s, surviving particularly in small states.", "In some nations, however, such as [[Brunei]], [[Morocco]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Eswatini]] and [[Thailand]], the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the state, either by convention or by a constitutional mandate.", "According to a 2020 study, monarchy arose as a system of governance because of an efficiency in governing large populations and expansive territories during periods when coordinating such populations was difficult. The authors argue that monarchy declined as an efficient regime type with innovations in communications and transportation technology, as the efficiency of monarchy relative to other regime types declined."], "Succession": {"Elective monarchies": ["In an [[elective monarchy]], monarchs are [[Election|elected]] or appointed by somebody (an [[electoral college]]) for life or a defined period, but then reign like any other monarch. There is no popular vote involved in elective monarchies, as the elective body usually consists of a small number of eligible people. Historical examples of elective monarchy are the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s (chosen by [[prince-elector]]s but often coming from the same dynasty) and the [[Royal elections in Poland|free election]] of kings of the [[Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. For example, [[Pepin the Short]] (father of [[Charlemagne]]) was elected [[List of Frankish kings|King of the Franks]] by an assembly of Frankish leading men; nobleman [[Stanis\u0142aw August Poniatowski]] of Poland was an elected king, as was [[Frederick I of Denmark]]. [[Germanic peoples]] also had elective monarchies.", "Six forms of elective monarchies exist today. The [[pope]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] (who rules as [[Sovereign]] of the [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]]) is [[Papal conclave|elected]] for life by the [[College of Cardinals]]. In the [[Sovereign Military Order of Malta]], the [[List of Princes and Grand Masters of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta|Prince and Grand Master]] is elected for life tenure by the Council Complete of State from within its members. In [[Malaysia]], the federal king, called the [[Yang di-Pertuan Agong]] or Paramount Ruler, is elected for a five-year term from among and by the hereditary rulers (mostly [[sultan]]s) of nine of the federations constitutive [[States of Malaysia|states]], all on the [[Malay peninsula]]. The [[United Arab Emirates]] also chooses its federal leaders from among emirs of the federated states. Furthermore, [[Andorra]] has a unique constitutional arrangement as one of its heads of state is the President of the [[France|French Republic]] in the form of a [[Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-Prince]]. This is the only instance in the world where the monarch of a state is elected by the citizens of a different country. In New Zealand, the Maori King, head of the Kingitanga Movement, is elected by a council of Maori elders at the funeral of their predecessor, which is also where their coronation takes place. All of the Heads of the Maori King Movement have been descendants of the first Maori King, Potatau Te Wherowhero, who was elected and became King in June 1858. The current monarch is King [[T\u016bheitia Paki|Tuheitia Potatau Te Wherowhero VII]], who was elected and became King on 21 August 2006, the same day as the funeral of his mother, [[Te Atairangikaahu|Te Arikinui Dame Te Atairangikaahu]], the first Maori Queen. As well as being King and head of the Kingitanga Movement, King Tuheitia is also ex officio the Paramount Chief of the Waikato-Tainui tribe.", "Appointment by the current monarch is another system, used in [[Jordan]]. It also was used in [[Imperial Russia]]; however, it was soon changed to semi-Salic because the instability of the appointment system resulted in [[History of Russia (1721\u201396)|an age of palace revolutions]]. In this system, the monarch chooses the successor, who is always his relative."], "Hereditary monarchies": ["In a [[hereditary monarchy]], the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary [[order of succession]], usually within one [[royal family]] tracing its origin through a historical [[dynasty]] or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession.", "[[Primogeniture]], in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically \"agnatic primogeniture\" or \"patrilineal primogeniture\" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or [[paterfamilias|head of family]], with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their issue, and [[patrilineality|male-line]] males inheriting before females of the male line. This is the same as semi-Salic primogeniture. Complete exclusion of females from [[dynasty|dynastic]] succession is commonly referred to as application of the [[Salic law]] (see [[Terra salica]]).", "Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in [[coregency]]\u2014a senior king and a junior king. Examples were [[Henry the Young King]] of England and the early [[House of Capet|Direct Capetians]] in France. Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line.", "In 1980, [[Sweden]] became the first European monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne. Other kingdoms (such as the [[Netherlands]] in 1983, [[Norway]] in 1990, [[Belgium]] in 1991, [[Denmark]] in 2009, and [[Luxembourg]] in 2011) have since followed suit. The [[United Kingdom]] adopted absolute (equal) primogeniture (subject to the claims of existing heirs) on April 25, 2013, following [[Perth Agreement|agreement by the prime ministers of the sixteen Commonwealth Realms]] at the 22nd Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.", "In the absence of children, the next most senior member of the collateral line (for example, a younger sibling of the previous monarch) becomes monarch. In complex cases, this can mean that there are closer blood relatives to the deceased monarch than the next in line according to primogeniture. This has often led, especially in Europe in the [[Middle Ages]], to conflict between the principle of primogeniture and the principle of [[proximity of blood]].", "Other hereditary systems of succession included [[tanistry]], which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and [[Agnatic seniority]]. In some monarchies, such as [[Saudi Arabia]], succession to the throne first passes to the monarchs next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarchs children (agnatic seniority). However, on June 21, 2017, King Salman of Saudi Arabi revolted against this style of monarchy and elected his son to inherit the throne."], "Other ways of succession": {"By accession": ["The legitimacy and authorities of monarchs are often [[Proclamation|proclaimed]] and recognized through occupying and being [[investiture|invested]] with [[insignia]], seats, [[deed]]s and [[title]]s, like in the course of [[coronation]]s.", "This is especially employed to legitimize and settle disputed successions, changes in ways of succession, status of a monarch (e.g. as in the case of the [[privilegium maius]] deed) or new monarchies altogether (e.g. as in the case of the [[Coronation of Napoleon I]])."], "Dynasties": ["Succession is often based on the expected continuation of a [[dynasty|dynastic period]] or association in a [[dynastic union]], which is sometimes [[War of succession|challenged]] by diverging [[Lineage (anthropology)|lineage]] and [[Legitimists (disambiguation)|legitimism]]."], "Succession crisis": ["In cases of succession challenges it can be instrumental for [[pretender]]s to secure or install [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] through the above, for example proof of accession like insignia, through treaties or a claim of a divine mandate to rule (e.g. by [[Hong Xiuquan]] and his [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]])."], "first_par": ["Other ways to success a monarchy can be through claiming alternative votes (e.g. as in the case of the [[Western Schism]]), claims of a mandate to rule (e.g. a popular or [[Divine right of kings|divine mandate]]), [[military occupation]], a [[coup d\u00e9tat]], a will of the previous monarch or treaties between factions inside and outside of a monarchy (e.g. as in the case of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]])."]}}, "first_par": ["A monarchy is a [[form of government]] in which a person, the [[monarch]], is [[head of state]] for life or until [[abdication]]. The [[legitimacy (political)#monarchy|political legitimacy]] and authority of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic ([[crowned republic]]), to restricted ([[constitutional monarchy]]), to fully [[autocracy|autocratic]] ([[absolute monarchy]]), and can expand across the domains of the [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[legislature|legislative]] and [[judiciary|judicial]]. A monarchy can be a [[polity]] through [[unitary state|unity]], [[personal union]], [[vassal state|vassalage]] or [[federal monarchy|federation]], and monarchs can carry various titles such as [[emperor]], [[king]], [[Queen regnant|queen]], [[raja]], [[Khan (title)|khan]], [[caliph]], [[tsar]], [[sultan]], [[shah]], or [[pharaoh]].", "In most cases, the [[Order of succession|succession]] of monarchies is [[hereditary monarchy|hereditary]], often building [[dynasty|dynastic periods]], however [[elective monarchy|elective]] and [[Self-proclaimed monarchy|self-proclaimed]] monarchies are possible. [[Aristocracy (class)|Aristocrats]], though not inherent to monarchies, often serve as the pool of persons to draw the monarch from and fill the constituting institutions (e.g. [[Diet (assembly)|diet]] and [[royal court|court]]), giving many monarchies [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] elements.", "Monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century. Today [[List of current sovereign monarchs|forty-five sovereign nations]] in the world have a monarch, including sixteen [[Commonwealth realm]]s that have [[Elizabeth II]] as the head of state. Other than that there are a range of [[List of current constituent monarchs|sub-national monarchical entities]]. Modern monarchies tend to be constitutional monarchies, retaining under a constitution unique legal and ceremonial roles for the monarch, exercising limited or no political power, similar to heads of state in a [[parliamentary republic]].", "The opposing and alternative form of government to monarchy [[Monarchy#History|has become]] the [[republic]]."]}, "main_pages": {"Current monarchies": ["List of current monarchs of sovereign states"]}}, "Authoritarianism": {"page_content": {"Characteristics": {"Constitutions in authoritarian regimes": ["Authoritarian regimes often adopt \"the institutional trappings\" of democracies such as [[constitution]]s. Constitutions in authoritarian states may serve a variety of roles, including \"operating manual\" (describing how the government is to function); \"billboard\" (signal of regimes intent), \"blueprint\" (outline of future regime plans), and \"window dressing\" (material designed to obfuscate, such as provisions setting forth freedoms that are not honored in practice). Authoritarian constitutions may help legitimize, strengthen, and consolidate regimes. An authoritarian constitution \"that successfully coordinates government action and defines popular expectations can also help consolidate the regimes grip on power by inhibiting re coordination on a different set of arrangements\". Unlike democratic constitutions, authoritarian constitutions do not set direct limits on executive authority; however, in some cases such documents may function as ways for elites to protect their own property rights or constrain autocrats behavior.", "The concept of \"authoritarian constitutionalism\" has been developed by legal scholar [[Mark Tushnet]]. Tushnet distinguishes authoritarian constitutionalist regimes from \"liberal constitutionalist\" regimes (\"the sort familiar in the modern West, with core commitments to human rights and self-governance implemented by means of varying institutional devices\") and from purely authoritarian regimes (which reject the idea of human rights or constraints on leaders power). He describes authoritarian constitutionalist regimes as (1) authoritarian [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] states that (2) impose sanctions (such as libel judgments) against, but do not [[Arbitrary arrest and detention|arbitrarily arrest]], political dissidents; (3) permits \"reasonably open discussion and criticism of its policies\"; (4) hold \"reasonably free and fair elections\", without systemic intimidation, but \"with close attention to such matters as the drawing of election districts and the creation of party lists to ensure as best it can that it will prevail\u2014and by a substantial margin\"; (5) reflect at least occasional responsiveness to public opinion; and (6) create \"mechanisms to ensure that the amount of dissent does not exceed the level it regards as desirable\". "], "Economy": ["Scholars such as Seymour Lipset, Carles Boix, [[Susan Stokes]], Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Stephens and John Stephens argue that economic development increases the likelihood of democratization. Adam Przeworski and [[Fernando Limongi]] argue that while economic development makes democracies less likely to turn authoritarian, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that development causes democratization (turning an authoritarian state into a democracy).", "Eva Bellin argues that under certain circumstances the [[bourgeoise]] and [[Labour movement|labor]] are more likely to favor democratization, but less so under other circumstances. Economic development can boost public support for authoritarian regimes in the short-to-medium term.", "According to Michael Albertus, most [[Land reform|land reform programs]] tend to be implemented by authoritarian regimes that subsequently withhold [[Right to property|property rights]] from the beneficiaries of the land reform. Authoritarian regimes do so to gain coercive leverage over rural populations."], "Institutions": ["Within authoritarian systems, there may be nominally democratic institutions such as political parties, legislatures and elections, but they are managed in a way so as to entrench authoritarian regimes. Within democracies, parties serve to coordinate the pursuit of interests for like-minded citizens, whereas in authoritarian systems, they are a way for authoritarian leaders to find capable elites for the regime. In a democracy, a legislature is intended to represent the diversity of interests among citizens, whereas authoritarians use legislatures to signal their own restraint towards other elites as well as to monitor other elites who pose a challenge to the regime.", "Fraudulent elections may serve the role of signaling the strength of the regime (to deter elites from challenging the regime), as well as force other elites to demonstrate their loyalty to the regime, whereas in democracies, free and fair elections are used to select representatives who represent the will of the citizens. Elections may also motivate authoritarian party members to strengthen patron\u2013client and information-gathering networks, which strengthens the authoritarian regime. Elections may also motivate members of the ruling class to engage in public goods provision.", "According to one study, \"most dictatorships led by parties have regular popular elections\". Prior to the 1990s, most of these elections had no alternative parties or candidates for voters to vote on. Since the end of the Cold War, about two-thirds of elections in authoritarian systems allow for some opposition, but the elections are structured in a way to heavily favor the incumbent authoritarian regime.", "* Control of the media by the authoritarian incumbents.", "* Interference with opposition campaigning.", "* Electoral fraud.", "* Violence against opposition.", "* Large-scale spending by the state in favor of the incumbents.", "* Permitting of some parties, but not others.", "* Prohibitions on opposition parties, but not independent candidates.", "* Allowing competition between candidates within the incumbent party, but not those who are not in the incumbent party."], "Interactions with other elites and the masses": ["The foundations of stable authoritarian rule are that the authoritarian prevents contestation from the masses and other elites. The authoritarian regime may use co-optation or repression (or carrots and sticks) to prevent revolts. In the 2010s, Kazakhstan has unsuccessfully tried to mobilize citizens and police to cooperate through the zero tolerance policing of petty crimes."], "Manipulation of information": ["According to a 2019 study by Sergei Guriev and Daniel Treisman, authoritarian regimes have over time become less reliant on violence and mass repression to maintain control. The study shows instead that authoritarians have increasingly resorted to manipulation of information as a means of control. Authoritarians increasingly seek to create an appearance of good performance, conceal state repression, and imitate democracy."], "Systemic weakness and resilience": ["[[Andrew J. Nathan]] notes that \"regime theory holds that authoritarian systems are inherently fragile because of weak legitimacy, overreliance on coercion, over-centralization of decision making, and the predominance of personal power over institutional norms. [...] Few authoritarian regimes\u2014be they communist, fascist, corporatist, or personalist\u2014have managed to conduct orderly, peaceful, timely, and stable successions\".", "Political scientist Theodore M. Vestal writes that authoritarian political systems may be weakened through inadequate responsiveness to either popular or elite demands and that the authoritarian tendency to respond to challenges by exerting tighter control, instead of by adapting, may compromise the [[legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]] of an authoritarian state and lead to its collapse.", "One exception to this general trend is the endurance of the authoritarian rule of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] which has been unusually resilient among authoritarian regimes. Nathan posits that this can be attributed to four factors such as (1) \"the increasingly norm-bound nature of its succession politics\"; (2) \"the increase in meritocratic as opposed to factional considerations in the promotion of political elites\"; (3) \"the differentiation and functional specialization of institutions within the regime\"; and (4) \"the establishment of institutions for political participation and appeal that strengthen the CCPs legitimacy among the public at large\"."], "Violence": ["Yale University political scientist Milan Svolik argues that violence is a common characteristic of authoritarian systems. Violence tends to be common in authoritarian states because of a lack of independent third parties empowered to settle disputes between the dictator, regime allies, regime soldiers and the masses.", "Authoritarians may resort to measures referred to as \"[[Coup d\u00e9tat#Coup-proofing|coup-proofing]]\", i.e. structures that make it hard for any small group to seize power. These coup-proofing strategies may include the strategic placing of family, ethnic, and religious groups in the military; creation of an armed force parallel to the regular military; and development of multiple internal security agencies with overlapping jurisdiction that constantly monitor one another. Research shows that some coup-proofing strategies reduce the risk of coups occurring. However, coup-proofing reduces military effectiveness, and limits the rents that an incumbent can extract. A 2016 study shows that the implementation of [[Order of succession|succession rules]] reduce the occurrence of coup attempts. Succession rules are believed to hamper [[Coordination game|coordination efforts]] among coup plotters by assuaging elites who have more to gain by patience than by plotting. According to political scientists Curtis Bell and Jonathan Powell, coup attempts in neighbouring countries lead to greater coup-proofing and coup-related repression in a region. A 2017 study finds that countries coup-proofing strategies are heavily influenced by other countries with similar histories. A 2018 study in the [[Journal of Peace Research]] found that leaders who survive coup attempts and respond by purging known and potential rivals are likely to have longer tenures as leaders. A 2019 study in Conflict Management and Peace Science found that [[personalist]] dictatorships are more likely to take coup-proofing measures than other authoritarian regimes; the authors argue that this is because \"personalists are characterized by weak institutions and narrow support bases, a lack of unifying ideologies and informal links to the ruler\".", "According to a 2019 study, personalist dictatorships are more repressive than other forms of dictatorship."], "first_par": ["Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated and [[centralized government]] power maintained by [[political repression]] and the exclusion of potential challengers. It uses [[Political party|political parties]] and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime. [[Adam Przeworski]] has theorized that \"authoritarian equilibrium rests mainly on lies, fear and economic prosperity\".", "Authoritarianism also tends to embrace the informal and unregulated exercise of [[Power (politics)|political power]], a leadership that is \"self-appointed and even if elected cannot be displaced by citizens free choice among competitors\", the arbitrary deprivation of [[civil liberties]] and little tolerance for meaningful [[Opposition (politics)|opposition]]. A range of [[social control]]s also attempt to stifle [[civil society]] while political stability is maintained by control over and support of the [[armed forces]], a bureaucracy staffed by the regime and creation of [[allegiance]] through various means of [[socialization]] and indoctrination.", "Authoritarianism is marked by \"indefinite political tenure\" of the ruler or [[ruling party]] (often in a [[one-party state]]) or other authority. The transition from an authoritarian system to a more [[Democracy|democratic]] form of government is referred to as [[democratization]]."]}, "Effect on development": ["Some commentators such as [[Seymour Martin Lipset]] argue that low-income authoritarian regimes have certain technocratic \"efficiency-enhancing advantages\" over low-income democracies that gives authoritarian regimes an advantage in [[economic development]]. By contrast, [[Morton H. Halperin]], Joseph T. Siegle and Michael M. Weinstein (2005) argue that democracies \"realize superior development performance\" over authoritarianism, pointing out that poor democracies are more likely to have steadier economic growth and less likely to experience economic and humanitarian catastrophes (such as refugee crises) than authoritarian regimes; that civil liberties in democracies act as a curb on corruption and misuse of resources; and that democracies are more adaptable than authoritarian regimes.", "Studies suggest that several health indicators (life expectancy and infant and maternal mortality) have a stronger and more significant association with democracy than they have with [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita, size of the public sector or income inequality. Prominent economist [[Amartya Sen]] has theorized that no functioning liberal democracy has ever suffered a large-scale [[famine]]."], "Examples": {"Current": ["The following is a non-exhaustive list of examples of states which are currently or frequently characterized as authoritarian."], "Historical": ["The following is a non-exhaustive list of examples of states which were historically authoritarian."], "first_par": ["There is no one consensus definition of authoritarianism, but several annual measurements are attempted, including [[Freedom House]]s annual [[Freedom in the World]] report. Some countries such as Venezuela, among others, that are currently or historically recognized as authoritarian did not become authoritarian upon taking power or fluctuated between an authoritarian, [[Flawed democracy|flawed]] or [[illiberal-democratic]] regime. The time period reflects their time in power rather than the years they were authoritarian regimes. Some countries such as China and [[fascist]] regimes have also been characterized as [[totalitarian]], with some periods being depicted as more authoritarian, or totalitarian, than others."]}, "Historical trends": {"2000s authoritarian revival": ["Since 2005, observers noted what some have called a \"[[democratic recession]]\", although some such as Steven Levitsky and Lucan Way have disputed that there was a significant democratic decline before 2013. In 2018, the [[Freedom House]] declared that from 2006 to 2018 \"113 countries\" around the world showed \"a net decline\" in \"political rights and civil liberties\" while \"only 62\" experienced \"a net improvement\". Its 2020 report marked the fourteenth consecutive year of declining scores. By 2020, all countries marked as \"not free\" by [[Freedom House]] had also developed practices of [[transnational authoritarianism]], aiming to police and control dissent beyond state borders.", "[[Michael Ignatieff]] wrote that Fukuyamas idea of liberalism vanquishing authoritarianism \"now looks like a quaint artifact of a vanished unipolar moment\" and Fukuyama himself expressed concern. By 2018, only one Arab Spring uprising (that in Tunisia) resulted in a transition to constitutional democratic governance and a \"resurgence of authoritarianism and [[Islamic extremism]]\" in the region was dubbed the [[Arab Winter]].", "Various explanations have been offered for the new spread of authoritarianism. They include the downside of globalization, and the subsequent rise of [[populism|populist]] [[neo-nationalism]], and the success of the [[Beijing Consensus]], i.e. the authoritarian model of the [[Peoples Republic of China]]. In countries such as the United States, factors blamed for the growth of authoritarianism include the [[financial crisis of 2007\u20132008]] and slower real wage growth as well as social medias elimination of so-called \"gatekeepers\" of knowledge \u2013 the equivalent of [[disintermediation]] in economics \u2013 so that a large fraction of the population considers to be opinion what were once \"viewed as verifiable facts\" \u2013 including everything from the danger of global warming to the preventing the spread of disease through vaccination \u2013 and considers to be fact what are actually only unproven fringe opinions."], "Post-World War II anti-authoritarianism": ["Both [[World War II]] (ending in 1945) and the [[Cold War]] (ending in 1991) resulted in the replacement of authoritarian regimes by either democratic regimes or regimes that were less authoritarian.", "[[World War II]] saw the defeat of the [[Axis powers]] by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied powers]]. All the Axis powers ([[Nazi Germany]], [[Fascist Italy (1922\u20131943)|Fascist Italy]] and [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]]) had totalitarian or authoritarian governments, and two of the three were replaced by governments based on democratic constitutions. The [[Allies of World War II|Allied powers]] were an alliance of Democratic states and (later) the Communist [[Soviet Union]]. At least in Western Europe the initial post-war era embraced pluralism and freedom of expression in areas that had been under control of authoritarian regimes. The memory of fascism and Nazism was denigrated. The new [[Federal Republic of Germany]] banned its expression. In reaction to the centralism of the Nazi state, the new constitution of West Germany ([[Federal Republic of Germany]]) exercised \"[[separation of powers]]\" and placed \"[[Law enforcement in Germany|law enforcement]] firmly in the hands\" of the sixteen [[States of Germany|L\u00e4nder]] or states of the republic, not with the federal German government, at least not at first.", "Culturally there was also a strong sense of anti-authoritarianism based on [[anti-fascism]] in Western Europe. This was attributed to the active resistance from [[German-occupied Europe|occupation]] and to fears arising from the development of [[superpower]]s. Anti-authoritarianism also became associated with [[countercultural]] and [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] movements such as the [[Beat Generation]] in the 1950s, the [[hippies]] in the 1960s and [[Punk subculture|punk]]s in the 1970s.", "In South America, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile and Uruguay moved away from dictatorships to democracies between 1982 and 1990.", "With the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] in 1989 and the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union]] in [[1991 Soviet coup d\u00e9tat attempt|1991]], the other authoritarian/totalitarian \"half\" of the Allied Powers of World War II collapsed. This led not so much to revolt against authority in general, but to the belief that authoritarian states (and state control of economies) were outdated. The idea that \"liberal democracy was the final form toward which all political striving was directed\" became very popular in Western countries and was celebrated in [[Francis Fukuyama]]s book [[The End of History and the Last Man]]. According to Charles H. Fairbanks Jr., \"all the new states that stumbled out of the ruins of the Soviet bloc, except Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, seemed indeed to be moving toward democracy in the early 1990s\" as where the countries of East Central Europe and the Balkans.", "In late 2010, the [[Arab Spring]] arose in response to unrest over economic stagnation but also in opposition to oppressive authoritarian regimes, first in [[Tunisia]] and spreading to [[Libya]], [[Egypt]], [[Yemen]], [[Syria]], [[Bahrain]] and elsewhere. Regimes were toppled in [[Tunisia]], [[Libya]], [[Egypt]] and partially in [[Yemen]] while other countries saw riots, civil wars or insurgencies."]}, "Typologies": {"Authoritarianism and democracy": {"Competitive authoritarian regimes": ["Another type of authoritarian regime is the competitive authoritarian regime, a type of civilian regime that arose in the post-Cold War era. In a competitive authoritarian regime, \"formal democratic institutions exist and are widely viewed as the primary means of gaining power, but... incumbents abuse of the state places them at a significant advantage vis-\u00e0-vis their opponents\". The term was coined by Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way in their 2010 book of the same name to discuss a type of [[hybrid regime]] that emerged during and after the [[Cold War]].", "Competitive authoritarian regimes differ from fully authoritarian regimes in that elections are regularly held, the opposition can openly operate without a high risk of exile or imprisonment and \"democratic procedures are sufficiently meaningful for opposition groups to take them seriously as arenas through which to contest for power\". However, competitive authoritarian regimes lack one or more of the three characteristics of democracies such as free elections (i.e. elections untainted by substantial fraud or voter intimidation); protection of civil liberties (i.e. the freedom of speech, press and association) and an even playing field (in terms of access to resources, the media and legal recourse)."], "first_par": ["Authoritarianism and democracy are not necessarily fundamental opposites as it is possible for some democracies to possess authoritarian elements, and for an authoritarian system to have democratic elements. An [[illiberal democracy]], or [[procedural democracy]], is distinguished from [[liberal democracy]], or [[substantive democracy]], in that illiberal democracies lack features such as the [[rule of law]], protections for [[minority group]]s, an [[Judicial independence|independent judiciary]] and the real [[separation of powers]].", "A further distinction that liberal democracies have rarely made war with one another; research has extended the theory and finds that more democratic countries tend to have few wars (sometimes called [[militarized interstate dispute]]s) causing fewer battle deaths with one another and that democracies have far fewer [[civil war]]s.", "Research shows that the democratic nations have much less [[democide]] or murder by government. Those were also moderately developed nations before applying liberal democratic policies. Research by the [[World Bank]] suggests that political institutions are extremely important in determining the prevalence of [[Political corruption|corruption]] and that parliamentary systems, political stability and [[freedom of the press]] are all associated with lower corruption.", "A 2006 study by economist [[Alberto Abadie]] has concluded that terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate [[political freedom]]. The nations with the least amount of [[terrorism]] are the most and least democratic nations, and that \"transitions from an authoritarian regime to a democracy may be accompanied by temporary increases in terrorism\". Studies in 2013 and 2017 similarly found a nonlinear relationship between political freedom and terrorism, with the most terrorist attacks occurring in partial democracies and the fewest in \"strict autocracies and full-fledged democracies\". A 2018 study by Amichai Magen demonstrated that liberal democracies and [[polyarchies]] not only suffer fewer terrorist attacks as compared to other regime types, but also suffer fewer casualties in terrorist attacks as compared to other regime types, which may be attributed to higher-quality democracies responsiveness to their citizens demands, including \"the desire for physical safety\", resulting in \"investment in intelligence, infrastructure protection, first responders, social resilience, and specialized medical care\" which averts casualties. Magen also noted that terrorism in closed autocracies sharply increased starting in 2013."]}, "Authoritarianism and fascism": ["Authoritarianism is considered a core concept of [[fascism]] and scholars agree that a fascist regime is foremost an authoritarian form of government, although not all authoritarian regimes are fascist. While authoritarianism is a defining characteristic of fascism, scholars argue that more distinguishing traits are needed to make an authoritarian regime fascist."], "Authoritarianism and totalitarianism": ["Compared to totalitarianism, \"the authoritarian state still maintains a certain distinction between state and society. It is only concerned with political power and as long as that is not contested it gives society a certain degree of liberty. Totalitarianism, on the other hand, invades [[private sphere|private life]] and asphyxiates it\". Another distinction is that \"authoritarianism is not animated by utopian ideals in the way totalitarianism is. It does not attempt to change the world and human nature\". [[Carl Joachim Friedrich]] writes that \"a totalist ideology, a party reinforced by a [[secret police]], and monopoly control of [...] industrial mass society\" are the three features of totalitarian regimes that distinguish them from other autocracies."], "first_par": ["* Traditional authoritarian regimes are those \"in which the ruling authority (generally a single person)\" is maintained in power \"through a combination of appeals to traditional legitimacy, [[Clientelism|patron-client ties]] and repression, which is carried out by an apparatus bound to the ruling authority through personal loyalties\". An example is [[Ethiopia]] under [[Haile Selassie I]]. ", "* Bureaucratic-military authoritarian regimes are those \"governed by a [[military junta|coalition of military officers]] and technocrats who act pragmatically (rather than ideologically) within the limits of their bureaucratic mentality\". [[Mark J. Gasiorowski]] suggests that it is best to distinguish \"simple military authoritarian regimes\" from \"bureaucratic authoritarian regimes\" in which \"a powerful group of technocrats uses the state apparatus to try to rationalize and develop the economy\" such as [[Singapore]] and [[South Korea]] under [[Lee Kuan Yew]] and [[Park Chung-hee]] respectively.", "Subtypes of authoritarian regime identified by Linz are [[Corporatism|corporatist]] or organic-statistic, racial and ethnic \"democracy\" and post-totalitarian. ", "* Corporatist authoritarian regimes \"are those in which corporatism institutions are used extensively by the state to coopt and demobilize powerful interest groups\". This type has been studied most extensively in [[Latin America]].", "* Racial and ethnic \"democracies\" are those in which \"certain racial or ethnic groups enjoy full democratic rights while others are largely or entirely denied those rights\", such as in [[South Africa under apartheid]].", "* Post-totalitarian authoritarian regimes are those in which totalitarian institutions (such as the party, [[secret police]] and state-controlled mass media) remain, but where \"ideological orthodoxy has declined in favor of routinization, repression has declined, the states top leadership is less personalized and more secure, and the level of mass mobilization has declined substantially\". Examples include the [[Russian Federation]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Eastern Bloc]] states in the mid-1980s. The post-[[Mao Zedong]] [[China|Peoples Republic of China]] was viewed as post-totalitarian in the 1990s and early 2000s, with a limited degree of increase in pluralism and civil society. however, in the 2010s, particularly after [[Xi Jinping]] succeeded as [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of China]] and [[Succession of power in China|rose to power]] in 2012, Chinese state repression sharply increased, aided by [[digital authoritarianism|digital control]] and [[mass surveillance]].", "Authoritarian regimes are also sometimes subcategorized by whether they are personalistic or [[Populism|populist]]. Personalistic authoritarian regimes are characterized by arbitrary rule and [[authority]] exercised \"mainly through patronage networks and coercion rather than through institutions and formal rules\". Personalistic authoritarian regimes have been seen in post-colonial Africa. By contrast, populist authoritarian regimes \"are mobilizational regimes in which a strong, charismatic, manipulative leader rules through a coalition involving key lower-class groups\". Examples include [[Argentina]] under [[Juan Per\u00f3n|Jua Per\u00f3n]], [[Egypt]] under [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] and [[Venezuela]] under [[Hugo Ch\u00e1vez]] and [[Nicol\u00e1s Maduro]].", "A typology of authoritarian regimes by political scientists Brian Lai and Dan Slater includes four categories: machine (oligarchic party dictatorships); bossism (autocratic party dictatorships); [[Junta (governing body)|juntas]] (oligarchic military dictatorships); and [[Strongman (politics)|strongman]] (autocratic military dictatorships). Lai and Slater argue that single\u2010party regimes are better than military regimes at developing institutions (e.g. [[mass mobilization]], patronage networks ad coordination of elites) that are effective at continuing the regimes incumbency and diminishing domestic challengers; Lai and Slater also argue that military regimes more often initiate military conflicts or undertake other \"desperate measures\" to maintain control as compared to single\u2010party regimes.", "John Duckitt suggests a link between authoritarianism and [[collectivism]], asserting that both stand in opposition to [[individualism]]. Duckitt writes that both authoritarianism and collectivism submerge [[individual rights]] and goals to group goals, expectations and [[Conformity|conformities]]."]}, "first_par": ["Authoritarianism is a [[form of government]] characterized by the rejection of [[political plurality]], the use of a strong central power to preserve the political [[status quo]], and reductions in the [[rule of law]], [[separation of powers]], and [[democratic voting]]. Political scientists have created many typologies describing variations of authoritarian forms of government. Authoritarian regimes may be either [[autocratic]] or [[oligarchic]] in nature and may be based upon the rule of a [[Dominant-party system|party]] or the [[Military dictatorship|military]].", "# Limited [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|political pluralism]], realized with constraints on the [[legislature]], [[Political party|political parties]] and [[interest group]]s.", "# [[Political legitimacy]] based upon appeals to emotion and identification of the regime as a necessary evil to combat \"easily recognizable societal problems, such as [[underdevelopment]] or [[insurgency]]\".", "# Minimal [[political mobilization]] and suppression of anti-regime activities.", "# Ill-defined executive powers, often vague and shifting, which extends the power of the executive.", "Minimally defined, an authoritarian government lacks free and competitive [[direct election]]s to [[legislature]]s, free and competitive direct or [[indirect election]]s for [[Executive (government)|executives]], or both. Broadly defined, authoritarian states include countries that lack the [[civil liberties]] such as [[freedom of religion]], or countries in which the government and the [[Opposition (politics)|opposition]] do not alternate in power at least once following free elections. Authoritarian states might contain nominally democratic institutions such as political parties, legislatures and elections which are managed to entrench authoritarian rule and can feature fraudulent, non-competitive elections. Since 1946, the share of authoritarian states in the international political system increased until the mid-1970s, but declined from then until the year 2000."]}, "main_pages": {}}, "Republicanism": {"page_content": {"Democracy": {"Constitutional monarchs and upper chambers": ["Some countries (such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Scandinavian countries, and Japan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional ones with limited, or eventually merely symbolic, powers. Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system, whether or not they were replaced with democratic institutions (such as in France, China, Iran, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, Turkey and Egypt). In Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Papua New Guinea, and some other countries the monarch, or its representative, is given supreme executive power, but by convention acts only on the advice of his or her ministers. Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures, the members of which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these houses lost much power (as the UK [[House of Lords]]), or else became elective and remained powerful."], "Democracy and republic": ["In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is [[Direct democracy|direct]] or [[Representative democracy|representative]]. Today the term [[republic]] usually refers to representative democracy with an elected [[head of state]], such as a [[President (government title)|president]], who serves for a limited term; in contrast to states with a hereditary [[monarch]] as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies, with an elected or appointed [[head of government]] such as a [[Prime Minister|prime minister]].", "The [[Founding Fathers of the United States]] rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean [[direct democracy]] and which they equated with [[Ochlocracy|mob rule]]; [[James Madison]] argued that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combatted faction by its very structure. What was critical to American values, [[John Adams]] insisted, was that the government should be \"bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend.\""], "first_par": ["In the late 18th century there was convergence of democracy and republicanism. Republicanism is a system that replaces or accompanies inherited rule. There is an emphasis on liberty, and a rejection of corruption. It strongly influenced the [[American Revolution]] and the [[French Revolution]] in the 1770s and 1790s, respectively. Republicans, in these two examples, tended to reject inherited elites and aristocracies, but left open two questions: whether a republic, to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an unelected [[upper chamber]]\u2014perhaps with members appointed as meritorious experts\u2014and whether it should have a [[constitutional monarch]].", "Though conceptually separate from democracy, republicanism included the key principles of rule by [[consent of the governed]] and sovereignty of the people. In effect, republicanism held that kings and aristocracies were not the real rulers, but rather the whole people were. Exactly how the people were to rule was an issue of democracy: republicanism itself did not specify a means. In the United States, the solution was the creation of [[First Party System|political parties]] that reflected the votes of the people and controlled the government (see [[Republicanism in the United States]]). Many exponents of republicanism, such as [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Thomas Paine]], and [[Thomas Jefferson]] were strong promoters of representative democracy. Other supporters of republicanism, such as [[John Adams]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]], were more distrustful of majority rule and sought a government with more power for elites. In [[Federalist No. 10]], [[James Madison]] rejected democracy in favor of republicanism. There were similar debates in many other [[Democratization|democratizing]] nations."]}, "Historical development of republicanism": {"Classical antecedents": {"Ancient Greece": ["In [[Ancient Greece]], several philosophers and historians analysed and described elements we now recognize as [[classical republicanism]]. Traditionally, the Greek concept of \"[[politeia]]\" was rendered into Latin as res publica. Consequently, political theory until relatively recently often used republic in the general sense of \"regime\". There is no single written expression or definition from this era that exactly corresponds with a modern understanding of the term \"republic\" but most of the essential features of the modern definition are present in the works of [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], and [[Polybius]]. These include theories of [[mixed government]] and of [[civic virtue]]. For example, in [[Republic (Plato)|The Republic]], Plato places great emphasis on the importance of civic virtue (aiming for the good) together with personal virtue (just man) on the part of the ideal rulers. Indeed, in Book V, Plato asserts that until rulers have the nature of philosophers (Socrates) or philosophers become the rulers, there can be no civic peace or happiness.", "A number of Ancient Greek [[city-states]] such as [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]] have been classified as \"[[classical republic]]s\", because they featured extensive participation by the citizens in legislation and political decision-making. Aristotle considered [[Carthage]] to have been a republic as it had a political system similar to that of some of the Greek cities, notably Sparta, but avoided some of the defects that affected them."], "Ancient Rome": ["Both [[Livy]], a Roman historian, and [[Plutarch]], who is noted for his biographies and moral essays, described how Rome had developed its legislation, notably the transition from a kingdom to a republic, by following the example of the Greeks. Some of this history, composed more than 500 years after the events, with scant written sources to rely on, may be fictitious reconstruction.", "The Greek historian [[Polybius]], writing in the mid-2nd century BCE, emphasized (in Book 6) the role played by the [[Roman Republic]] as an institutional form in the dramatic rise of Romes hegemony over the Mediterranean. In his writing on the constitution of the Roman Republic, Polybius described the system as being a \"mixed\" form of government. Specifically, Polybius described the Roman system as a mixture of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy with the Roman Republic constituted in such a manner that it applied the strengths of each system to offset the weaknesses of the others. In his view, the mixed system of the Roman Republic provided the Romans with a much greater level of domestic tranquility than would have been experienced under another form of government. Furthermore, Polybius argued, the comparative level of domestic tranquility the Romans enjoyed allowed them to conquer the Mediterranean. Polybius exerted a great influence on [[Cicero]] as he wrote his politico-philosophical works in the 1st century BCE. In one of these works, [[De re publica]], Cicero linked the Roman concept of res publica to the Greek politeia.", "The modern term \"republic\", despite its derivation, is not synonymous with the Roman [[res publica]]. Among the several meanings of the term res publica, it is most often translated \"republic\" where the Latin expression refers to the Roman state, and its form of government, between the era of the Kings and the era of the Emperors. This Roman Republic would, by a modern understanding of the word, still be defined as a true republic, even if not coinciding entirely. Thus, [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] philosophers saw the Roman Republic as an ideal system because it included features like a systematic [[separation of powers]].", "Romans still called their state \"Res Publica\" in the era of the early emperors because, on the surface, the organization of the state had been preserved by the first emperors without significant alteration. Several offices from the Republican era, held by individuals, were combined under the control of a single person. These changes became permanent, and gradually conferred sovereignty on the Emperor.", "Ciceros description of the ideal state, in De re Publica, does not equate to a modern-day \"republic\"; it is more like [[enlightened absolutism]]. His philosophical works were influential when Enlightenment philosophers such as [[Voltaire]] developed their political concepts.", "In its classical meaning, a republic was any stable well-governed political community. Both [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] identified three forms of government: [[democracy]], [[aristocracy]], and [[monarchy]]. First Plato and Aristotle, and then Polybius and Cicero, held that the ideal republic is a [[Mixed government|mixture]] of these three forms of government. The writers of the Renaissance embraced this notion.", "Cicero expressed reservations concerning the republican form of government. While in his theoretical works he defended monarchy, or at least a mixed monarchy/oligarchy, in his own political life, he generally opposed men, like [[Julius Caesar]], [[Mark Antony]], and [[Augustus|Octavian]], who were trying to realise such ideals. Eventually, that opposition led to his death and Cicero can be seen as a victim of his own Republican ideals.", "[[Tacitus]], a contemporary of Plutarch, was not concerned with whether a form of government could be analyzed as a \"republic\" or a \"monarchy\". He analyzed how the powers accumulated by the early [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] were all given by a State that was still notionally a republic. Nor was the Roman Republic \"forced\" to give away these powers: it did so freely and reasonably, certainly in [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] case, because of his many services to the state, freeing it from [[civil war]]s and disorder.", "Tacitus was one of the first to ask whether such powers were given to the head of state because the citizens wanted to give them, or whether they were given for other reasons (for example, because one had a [[imperial cult|deified ancestor]]). The latter case led more easily to abuses of power. In Tacitus opinion, the trend away from a true republic was irreversible only when [[Tiberius]] established power, shortly after Augustus death in 14 CE (much later than most historians place the start of the Imperial form of government in Rome). By this time, too many principles defining some powers as \"untouchable\" had been implemented."]}, "Enlightenment republicanism": {"Corsica": ["The first of the Enlightenment republics established in Europe during the eighteenth century occurred in the small Mediterranean island of [[Corsica]]. Although perhaps an unlikely place to act as a laboratory for such political experiments, Corsica combined a number of factors that made it unique: a tradition of village democracy; varied cultural influences from the Italian city-states, [[Spanish empire]] and [[Kingdom of France]] which left it open to the ideas of the Italian [[Renaissance]], Spanish [[humanism]] and [[French Enlightenment]]; and a geo-political position between these three competing powers which led to frequent power vacuums in which new regimes could be set up, testing out the fashionable new ideas of the age.", "From the 1720s the island had been experiencing a series of short-lived but ongoing rebellions against its current sovereign, the Italian city-state of [[Genoa]]. During the initial period (1729\u201336) these merely sought to restore the control of the Spanish Empire; when this proved impossible, an independent [[Kingdom of Corsica]] (1736\u201340) was proclaimed, following the Enlightenment ideal of a written [[constitutional monarchy]]. But the perception grew that the monarchy had colluded with the invading power, a more radical group of reformers led by the [[Pasquale Paoli]] pushed for political overhaul, in the form of a constitutional and parliamentary republic inspired by the popular ideas of the Enlightenment.", "Its governing philosophy was both inspired by the prominent thinkers of the day, notably the French philosophers Montesquieu and Voltaire and the Swiss theorist Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Not only did it include a permanent national parliament with fixed-term legislatures and regular elections, but, more radically for the time, it introduced [[universal male suffrage]], and it is thought to be the first constitution in the world to grant women the right to vote [[female suffrage]] may also have existed. It also extended Enlightened principles to other spheres, including administrative reform, the foundation of a national [[University of Corsica Pasquale Paoli|university at Corte]], and the establishment of a [[Lev\u00e9e en masse|popular standing army]].", "The Corsican Republic lasted for fifteen years, from 1755 to 1769, eventually falling to a combination of Genoese and French forces and was incorporated as a province of the Kingdom of France. But the episode resonated across Europe as an early example of Enlightened constitutional republicanism, with many of the most prominent political commentators of the day recognising it to be an experiment in a new type of popular and democratic government. Its influence was particularly notable among the French Enlightenment philosophers: Rousseaus famous work On the Social Contract (1762: chapter 10, book II) declared, in its discussion on the conditions necessary for a functional popular sovereignty, that \"There is still one European country capable of making its own laws: the island of Corsica. valour and persistency with which that brave people has regained and defended its liberty well deserves that some wise man should teach it how to preserve what it has won. I have a feeling that some day that little island will astonish Europe.\"; indeed Rousseau volunteered to do precisely that, offering a draft constitution for Paolise use. Similarly, Voltaire affirmed in his Pr\u00e9cis du si\u00e8cle de Louis XV (1769: chapter LX) that \"Bravery may be found in many places, but such bravery only among free peoples\". But the influence of the Corsican Republic as an example of a sovereign people fighting for liberty and enshrining this constitutionally in the form of an Enlightened republic was even greater among the Radicals of [[Great Britain]] and [[North America]], where it was popularised via [[An Account of Corsica]], by the Scottish essayist [[James Boswell]]. The Corsican Republic went on to influence the American revolutionaries ten years later: the [[Sons of Liberty]], initiators of the [[American Revolution]], would declare Pascal Paoli to be a direct inspiration for their own struggle against despotism; the son of [[Ebenezer Mackintosh]] was named Pascal Paoli Mackintosh in his honour, and no fewer than five American counties are named Paoli for the same reason."], "England": ["[[Oliver Cromwell]] set up a republic called the [[Commonwealth of England]] (1649\u20131660) which he ruled after the overthrow of King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]. [[James Harrington (author)|James Harrington]] was then a leading philosopher of republicanism. [[John Milton]] was another important Republican thinker at this time, expressing his views in [[John Miltons politics|political tracts]] as well as through poetry and prose. In his epic poem [[Paradise Lost]], for instance, Milton uses Satans fall to suggest that unfit monarchs should be brought to justice, and that such issues extend beyond the constraints of one nation. As Christopher N. Warren argues, Milton offers \u201ca language to critique imperialism, to question the legitimacy of dictators, to defend free international discourse, to fight unjust property relations, and to forge new political bonds across national lines.\u201d This form of international Miltonic republicanism has been influential on later thinkers including 19th-century radicals [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]], according to Warren and other historians.", "The collapse of the [[Commonwealth of England]] in 1660 and the [[English Restoration|restoration]] of the monarchy under [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] discredited republicanism among Englands ruling circles. Nevertheless, they welcomed the [[liberalism]], and emphasis on rights, of [[John Locke]], which played a major role in the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688. Even so, republicanism flourished in the \"country\" party of the early 18th century ([[commonwealthmen]]), which denounced the corruption of the \"court\" party, producing a political theory that heavily influenced the American colonists. In general, the English ruling classes of the 18th century vehemently opposed republicanism, typified by the attacks on [[John Wilkes]], and especially on the [[American Revolution]] and the [[French Revolution]]."], "French and Swiss thought": ["French and Swiss Enlightenment thinkers, such as [[Voltaire]], [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Baron Charles de Montesquieu]] and later [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], expanded upon and altered the ideas of what an ideal republic should be: some of their new ideas were scarcely traceable to antiquity or the Renaissance thinkers. Concepts they contributed, or heavily elaborated, were [[social contract]], [[positive law]], and [[mixed government]]. They also borrowed from, and distinguished republicanism from, the ideas of [[liberalism]] that were developing at the same time.", "Liberalism and republicanism were frequently conflated during this period, because they both opposed absolute monarchy. Modern scholars see them as two distinct streams that both contributed to the democratic ideals of the modern world. An important distinction is that, while republicanism stressed the importance of [[civic virtue]] and the [[common good]], liberalism was based on economics and [[individualism]]. It is clearest in the matter of private property, which, according to some, can be maintained only under the protection of established [[positive law]].", "[[Jules Ferry]], Prime Minister of France from 1880 to 1885, followed both these schools of thought. He eventually enacted the [[Ferry Laws]], which he intended to overturn the [[Falloux Laws]] by embracing the anti-clerical thinking of the Philosophes. These laws ended the Catholic Churchs involvement in many government institutions in late 19th-century France, including schools."]}, "Renaissance republicanism": {"Dutch Republic": ["Anti-[[monarchism]] became more strident in the [[Dutch Republic]] during and after the [[Eighty Years War]], which began in 1568. This anti-monarchism was more propaganda than a political philosophy; most of the anti-monarchist works appeared in the form of widely distributed [[pamphlet]]s. This evolved into a systematic critique of monarchy, written by men such as the brothers [[Johan de la Court|Johan]] and [[Peter de la Court]]. They saw all monarchies as illegitimate tyrannies that were inherently corrupt. These authors were more concerned with preventing the position of [[Stadholder]] from evolving into a monarchy, than with attacking their former rulers. [[Republicanism in the Netherlands|Dutch republicanism]] also influenced French [[Huguenots]] during the [[French Wars of Religion|Wars of Religion]]. In the other states of early modern Europe republicanism was more moderate."], "Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth": ["In the [[Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth]], republicanism was the influential ideology. After the establishment of the Commonwealth of Two Nations, republicans supported the status quo, of having a very weak monarch, and opposed those who thought a stronger monarchy was needed. These mostly Polish republicans, such as [[\u0141ukasz G\u00f3rnicki]], [[Andrzej Wolan]], and [[Stanis\u0142aw Konarski]], were well read in classical and Renaissance texts and firmly believed that their state was a republic on the Roman model, and started to call their state the [[Rzeczpospolita]]. Atypically, Polish\u2013Lithuanian republicanism was not the ideology of the commercial class, but rather of the landed nobility, which would lose power if the monarchy were expanded. This resulted in an oligarchy of the great landed magnates."], "first_par": ["In Europe, republicanism was revived in the late [[Middle Ages]] when a number of states, which arose from [[medieval commune]]s, embraced a republican system of government. These were generally small but wealthy trading states in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. Haakonssen notes that by the Renaissance, Europe was divided, such that those states controlled by a landed elite were monarchies, and those controlled by a commercial elite were republics. The latter included the Italian city-states of [[Florence]], [[Genoa]], and [[Venice]] and members of the [[Hanseatic League]]. One notable exception was [[Dithmarschen]], a group of largely autonomous villages, which confederated in a peasants republic. Building upon concepts of medieval [[feudalism]], [[Renaissance]] scholars used the ideas of the ancient world to advance their view of an ideal government. Thus the republicanism developed during the Renaissance is known as classical republicanism because it relied on classical models. This terminology was developed by Zera Fink in the 1960s, but some modern scholars, such as Brugger, consider it confuses the \"classical republic\" with the system of government used in the ancient world. Early modern republicanism has been proposed as an alternative term. It is also sometimes called [[civic humanism]]. Beyond simply a non-monarchy, early modern thinkers conceived of an ideal republic, in which [[mixed government]] was an important element, and the notion that [[virtue]] and the [[common good]] were central to good government. Republicanism also developed its own distinct view of [[liberty]].", "Renaissance authors who spoke highly of republics were rarely critical of monarchies. While [[Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli]]s [[Discourses on Livy]] is the periods key work on republics, he also wrote the treatise [[The Prince]], which is better remembered and more widely read, on how best to run a monarchy. The early modern writers did not see the republican model as universally applicable; most thought that it could be successful only in very small and highly urbanized city-states. [[Jean Bodin]] in Six Books of the Commonwealth (1576) identified monarchy with republic.", "Classical writers like [[Tacitus]], and Renaissance writers like Machiavelli tried to avoid an outspoken preference for one government system or another. Enlightenment philosophers, on the other hand, expressed a clear opinion. [[Thomas More]], writing before the Age of Enlightenment, was too outspoken for the reigning kings taste, even though he coded his political preferences in a utopian allegory.", "In England a type of republicanism evolved that was not wholly opposed to monarchy; thinkers such as Thomas More and [[Thomas Smith (diplomat)|Sir Thomas Smith]] saw a monarchy, firmly constrained by law, as compatible with republicanism."]}, "Republicanism in Ireland": ["Inspired by the American and French Revolutions, the Society of United Irishmen was founded in 1791 in Belfast and Dublin. The inaugural meeting of the United Irishmen in Belfast on 18 October 1791 approved a declaration of the societys objectives. It identified the central grievance that Ireland had no national government: \"...we are ruled by Englishmen, and the servants of Englishmen, whose object is the interest of another country, whose instrument is corruption, and whose strength is the weakness of Ireland...\" They adopted three central positions: (i) to seek out a cordial union among all the people of Ireland, to maintain that balance essential to preserve liberties and extend commerce; (ii) that the sole constitutional mode by which English influence can be opposed, is by a complete and radical reform of the representation of the people in Parliament; (iii) that no reform is practicable or efficacious, or just which shall not include Irishmen of every religious persuasion. The declaration, then, urged constitutional reform, union among Irish people and the removal of all religious disqualifications.", "The movement was influenced, at least in part, by the French Revolution. Public interest, already strongly aroused, was brought to a pitch by the publication in 1790 of [[Edmund Burke]]s [[Reflections on the Revolution in France]], and Thomas Paines response, [[Rights of Man]], in February 1791. Theobald [[Wolfe Tone]] wrote later that, \"This controversy, and the gigantic event which gave rise to it, changed in an instant the politics of Ireland.\" Paine himself was aware of this commenting on sales of Part I of Rights of Man in November 1791, only eight months after publication of the first edition, he informed a friend that in England \"almost sixteen thousand has gone off \u2013 and in Ireland above forty thousand\". Paine my have been inclined to talk up sales of his works but what is striking in this context is that Paine believed that Irish sales were so far ahead of English ones before Part II had appeared. On 5 June 1792, [[Thomas Paine]], author of the Rights of Man was proposed for honorary membership of the Dublin Society of the United Irishmen.", "The fall of the [[Bastille]] was to be celebrated in Belfast on 14 July 1791 by a Volunteer meeting. At the request of [[Thomas Russell (rebel)|Thomas Russell]], Tone drafted suitable resolutions for the occasion, including one favouring the inclusion of Catholics in any reforms. In a covering letter to Russell, Tone wrote, \"I have not said one word that looks like a wish for separation, though I give it to you and your friends as my most decided opinion that such an event would be a regeneration of their country\". By 1795, Tones republicanism and that of the society had openly crystallized when he tells us: \"I remember particularly two days thae we passed on Cave Hill. On the first Russell, Neilson, Simms, McCracken and one or two more of us, on the summit of McArts fort, took a solemn obligation...never to desist in our efforts until we had subverted the authority of England over our country and asserted her independence.\"", "The culmination was an uprising against [[British rule in Ireland]] lasting from May to September 1798 \u2013 the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]] \u2013 with military support from revolutionary France in August and again October 1798. After the failure of the rising of 1798 the United Irishman, John Daly Burk, an \u00e9migr\u00e9 in the United States in his The History of the Late War in Ireland written in 1799, was most emphatic in its identification of the Irish, French and American causes."], "Republicanism in the Thirteen British Colonies in North America": ["In recent years a debate has developed over the role of republicanism in the [[American Revolution]] and in the British radicalism of the 18th century. For many decades the consensus was that [[classical liberalism|liberalism]], especially that of [[John Locke]], was paramount and that republicanism had a distinctly secondary role.", "The new interpretations were pioneered by [[J.G.A. Pocock]], who argued in [[The Machiavellian Moment]] (1975) that, at least in the early 18th century, republican ideas were just as important as liberal ones. Pococks view is now widely accepted. [[Bernard Bailyn]] and [[Gordon S. Wood|Gordon Wood]] pioneered the argument that the American founding fathers were more influenced by republicanism than they were by liberalism. Cornell University professor [[Isaac Kramnick]], on the other hand, argues that Americans have always been highly individualistic and therefore Lockean. [[Joyce Appleby]] has argued similarly for the Lockean influence on America.", "The commitment of most Americans to these republican values made the [[American Revolution]] inevitable. Britain was increasingly seen as corrupt and hostile to republicanism, and as a threat to the established liberties the Americans enjoyed."], "R\u00e9publicanisme": ["Republicanism, especially that of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], played a central role in the [[French Revolution]] and foreshadowed modern republicanism. The revolutionaries, after overthrowing the French monarchy in the 1790s, began by setting up a republic; Napoleon converted it into an Empire with a new aristocracy. In the 1830s Belgium adopted some of the innovations of the progressive political philosophers of the Enlightenment.", "R\u00e9publicanisme is a [[France|French]] version of modern republicanism. It is a form of [[social contract]], deduced from [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]s idea of a [[general will]]. Ideally, each [[citizen]] is engaged in a direct relationship with the [[State (polity)|state]], removing the need for [[identity politics]] based on local, religious, or racial identification.", "R\u00e9publicanisme, in theory, makes anti-discrimination laws unnecessary, but some critics argue that [[Color blindness (race)|colour-blind law]]s serve to perpetuate discrimination."]}, "Modern republicanism": {"France": ["The French version of republicanism after 1870 was called \"Radicalism\"; it became the [[Radical Party (France)|Radical Party]], a major political party. In Western Europe, there were similar smaller \"radical\" parties. They all supported a constitutional republic and [[universal suffrage]], while European liberals were at the time in favor of [[constitutional monarchy]] and [[census suffrage]]. Most radical parties later favored [[economic liberalism]] and [[capitalism]]. This distinction between radicalism and liberalism had not totally disappeared in the 20th century, although many radicals simply joined liberal parties. For example, the [[Radical Party of the Left]] in France or the (originally Italian) [[Transnational Radical Party]], which still exist, focus more on republicanism than on simple liberalism.", "Liberalism, was represented in France by the [[Orleanist]]s who rallied to the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] only in the late 19th century, after the [[comte de Chambord]]s 1883 death and the 1891 papal encyclical [[Rerum novarum]].", "But the early [[Radical Party (France)|Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party]] in France, and [[Chartism]] in Britain, were closer to republicanism. Radicalism remained close to republicanism in the 20th century, at least in France, where they governed several times with other parties (participating in both the [[Cartel des Gauches]] coalitions as well as the [[Popular Front (France)|Popular Front]]).", "Discredited after the [[Second World War]], French radicals split into a left-wing party \u2013 the [[Radical Party of the Left]], an associate of the [[Socialist Party (France)|Socialist Party]] \u2013 and the [[Radical Party (France)|Radical Party \"valoisien\"]], an associate party of the conservative [[Union for a Popular Movement]] (UMP) and its [[Gaullist Party|Gaullist]] predecessors. Italian radicals also maintained close links with republicanism, as well as with [[socialism]], with the [[Radical Party (Italy)|Partito radicale]] founded in 1955, which became the [[Transnational Radical Party]] in 1989.", "Increasingly, after the fall of communism in 1989 and the collapse of the Marxist interpretation of the French Revolution, France increasingly turned to republicanism to define its national identity. [[Charles de Gaulle]], presenting himself as the military savior of France in the 1940s, and the political savior in the 1950s, refashioned the meaning of republicanism. Both left and right enshrined him in the Republican pantheon."], "Neo-republicanism": ["Neorepublicanism is the effort by current scholars to draw on a classical republican tradition in the development of an attractive public philosophy intended for contemporary purposes. Neorepublicanism emerges as an alternative postsocialist critique of market society from the left.", "Prominent theorists in this movement are [[Philip Pettit]] and [[Cass Sunstein]], who have each written several works defining republicanism and how it differs from liberalism. [[Michael Sandel]], a late convert to republicanism from [[communitarianism]], advocates replacing or supplementing liberalism with republicanism, as outlined in his Democracys Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy.", "Contemporary work from a neorepublican include jurist [[K. Sabeel Rahman]]s book Democracy Against Domination, which seeks to create a neorepublican framework for [[economic regulation]] grounded in the thought of [[Louis Brandeis]] and [[John Dewey]] and [[popular sovereignty|popular control]], in contrast to both [[New Deal]]-style [[managerialism]] and [[neoliberal]] [[deregulation]]. Philosopher Elizabeth Andersons Private Government traces the history of republican critiques of private power, arguing that the classical [[free market]] policies of the 18th and 19th centuries intended to help workers only lead to their domination by employers. In From Slavery to the Cooperative Commonwealth, political scientist Alex Gourevitch examines a strain of late 19th century American republicanism known as labour republicanism that was the [[producerism|producerist]] [[labour union]] [[The Knights of Labor]], and how republican concepts were used in service of [[workers rights]], but also with a strong critique of the role of that union in supporting the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]]."], "Norway": ["In the period around and after the [[dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden]] in 1905, an opposition to the monarchy grew in Norway, and republican movements and thoughts continues to exist to this day."], "Spain": ["There is a renewed interest in republicanism in [[Spain]] after two earlier attempts: the [[First Spanish Republic]] (1873\u20131874) and the [[Second Spanish Republic]] (1931\u20131939). Movements such as, Citizens for the Republic in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], have emerged, and parties like [[United Left (Spain)]] and the [[Republican Left of Catalonia]] increasingly refer to republicanism. In a survey conducted in 2007 reported that 69% of the population prefer the monarchy to continue, compared with 22% opting for a Republic. In a 2008 survey, 58% of Spanish citizens were indifferent, 16% favored a republic, 16% were monarchists, and 7% claimed they were Juancarlistas (supporters of continued monarchy under King [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos I]], without a common position for the fate of the monarchy after his death). In recent years, there has been a tie between Monarchists and Republicans. "], "Sweden": ["In Sweden, a major promoter of republicanism is the [[Swedish Republican Association]], which advocates for a democratic ending to the [[Monarchy of Sweden]]."], "The British Empire and the Commonwealth of Nations": {"Australia": ["In [[Australia]], the debate between republicans and monarchists is still active, and republicanism draws support from across the political spectrum. Former Prime Minister [[Malcolm Turnbull]] was a leading proponent of an Australian republic prior to joining the centre-right [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]], and led the pro-republic campaign during the failed [[1999 Australian republic referendum]]. After becoming Prime Minister in 2015, he confirmed he still supports a republic, but stated that the issue should wait until after the reign of Queen Elizabeth II. The centre-left [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]] officially supports the abolition of the monarchy and another referendum on the issue."], "Barbados": ["On 22 March 2015, Prime Minister [[Freundel Stuart]] announced that Barbados will move towards a republican form of government \"in the very near future\". His government was defeated in the next election. ", "In September 2020, the government of Prime Minister [[Mia Mottley]] announced that Barbados intended to become a republic by 30 November 2021, the 55th anniversary of its independence. The plan would require a two-thirds majority vote in both houses of Parliament. If the goal is achieved, the Queen will be replaced as head of state by an elected Barbadian official. Whether that process could be completed in 2021 is \"not clear\", according to an investigation of the situation by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]."], "Canada": [], "Jamaica": ["[[Andrew Holness]], the current [[Prime Minister of Jamaica]], has announced that his government intends to begin the process of transitioning to a republic."], "New Zealand": ["In [[New Zealand]], there is also a republican movement."], "United Kingdom": ["Republican groups are also active in the [[United Kingdom]]. The major organisation campaigning for a republic in the United Kingdom is [[Republic (political organisation)|Republic]]."], "first_par": ["In some countries of the [[British Empire]], later the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], republicanism has taken a variety of forms.", "In [[Barbados]], the government gave the promise of a referendum on becoming a republic in August 2008, but it was postponed due to the change of government in the 2008 election. A plan to becoming a republic was still in place in September 2020, according to the current PM, with a target date of late 2021.", "In [[South Africa]], republicanism in the 1960s was identified with the supporters of [[apartheid]], who resented British interference in their treatment of the countrys black population. "]}, "The Netherlands": ["The Netherlands have known two republican periods: the [[Dutch Republic]] (1581\u20131795) that gained independence from the [[Spanish Empire]] during the [[Eighty Years War]], followed by the [[Batavian Republic]] (1795\u20131806) that after conquest by the [[French First Republic]] had been established as a [[Sister Republic]]. After [[Napoleon]] [[Coronation of Napoleon I|crowned himself Emperor of the French]], he made his brother [[Louis Bonaparte]] [[Kingdom of Holland|King of Holland]] (1806\u20131810), then annexed the Netherlands into the [[French First Empire]] (1810\u20131813) until he was defeated at the [[Battle of Leipzig]]. Thereafter the [[Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands]] (1813\u20131815) was established, granting the [[House of Orange-Nassau|Orange-Nassau]] family, who during the Dutch Republic had only been [[stadtholder]]s, a princely title over the Netherlands, and soon [[William I of the Netherlands|William Frederick]] even crowned himself King of the Netherlands. His rather autocratic tendencies in spite of the principles of constitutional monarchy met increasing resistance from Parliament and the population, which eventually limited the monarchys power and democratised the government, most notably through the [[Constitutional Reform of 1848]]. Since the late 19th century, republicanism has had various degrees of support in society, which the royal house generally dealt with by gradually letting go of its formal influence in politics and taking on a more ceremonial and symbolic role. Nowadays, popularity of the monarchy is high, but there is a significant republican minority that strives to abolish the monarchy altogether."], "United States": ["Republicanism became the dominant political value of Americans during and after the [[American Revolution]]. The [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]] were strong advocates of republican values, especially [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Samuel Adams]], [[Patrick Henry]], [[Thomas Paine]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[John Adams]], [[James Madison]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]]. However, in 1854, social movements started to harness values of [[abolitionism]] and free labour. These burgeoning radical traditions in America became epitomized in the early formation of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], known as \"red republicanism.\" The efforts were primarily led by political leaders such as [[Alvan E. Bovay]], [[Thaddeus Stevens]], and [[Abraham Lincoln]]."], "first_par": ["During the Enlightenment, anti-[[monarchism]] extended beyond the civic humanism of the Renaissance. Classical republicanism, still supported by philosophers such as [[Rousseau]] and [[Montesquieu]], was only one of several theories seeking to limit the power of monarchies rather than directly opposing them.", "[[Liberalism]] and [[socialism]] departed from [[classical republicanism]] and fueled the development of the more modern republicanism."]}, "first_par": ["Republicanism is a [[political ideology]] centered on [[citizenship]] in a [[state (polity)|state]] organized as a [[republic]]. Historically, it ranges from the rule of a representative minority or oligarchy to [[popular sovereignty]]. It has had different definitions and interpretations which vary significantly based on historical context and methodological approach.", "Republicanism may also refer to the non-ideological scientific approach to politics and governance. As the republican thinker and second president of the United States [[John Adams]] stated in the introduction to his famous Defense of the Constitution, the \"science of politics is the science of social happiness\" and a republic is the form of government arrived at when the science of politics is appropriately applied to the creation of a rationally designed government. Rather than being ideological, this approach focuses on applying a scientific methodology to the problems of governance through the rigorous study and application of past experience and experimentation in governance. This is the approach that may best be described to apply to republican thinkers such as [[Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli]] (as evident in his [[Discourses on Livy]]), John Adams, and [[James Madison]].", "The word \"republic\" derives from the Latin noun-phrase [[res publica]] (public thing), which referred to the system of government that emerged in the 6th century BCE following [[Overthrow of the Roman monarchy|the expulsion of the kings from Rome]] by [[Lucius Junius Brutus]] and [[Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus|Collatinus]].", "This form of government in the [[Roman Republic|Roman state]] collapsed in the latter part of the 1st century BCE, giving way to what was a monarchy in form, if not in name. Republics recurred subsequently, with, for example, [[Republic of Florence|Renaissance Florence]] or [[Commonwealth of England|early modern Britain]]. The concept of a republic became a powerful force in Britains [[North America]]n colonies, where it contributed to the [[American Revolution]]. In Europe, it gained enormous influence through the [[French Revolution]] and through the [[French First Republic|First French Republic]] of 1792\u20131804."]}, "main_pages": {"Australia": ["Republicanism in Australia"], "Barbados": ["Republicanism in Barbados"], "Canada": ["Republicanism in Canada", "Debate on the monarchy in Canada"], "Historical development of republicanism": ["Classical republicanism"], "Jamaica": ["Republicanism in Jamaica"], "New Zealand": ["Republicanism in New Zealand"], "Norway": ["Republicanism in Norway"], "Republicanism in Ireland": ["Society of United Irishmen", "Irish republicanism"], "Republicanism in the Thirteen British Colonies in North America": ["Republicanism in the United States"], "Spain": ["Republicanism in Spain"], "Sweden": ["Republicanism in Sweden"], "The Netherlands": ["Republicanism in the Netherlands"], "United Kingdom": ["Republicanism in the United Kingdom", ""], "United States": ["Republicanism in the United States"]}}, "Libertarianism": {"page_content": {"Contemporary libertarian organizations": ["Current international anarchist federations which identify themselves as libertarian include the [[International of Anarchist Federations]], the [[IWA\u2013AIT|International Workers Association]] and [[International Libertarian Solidarity]]. The largest organized anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederacion General del Trabajo de Espa\u00f1a|Confederaci\u00f3n General del Trabajo]] (CGT) and the CNT. CGT membership was estimated to be around 100,000 for 2003. Other active syndicalist movements include the [[Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden]] and the [[Swedish Anarcho-syndicalist Youth Federation]] in Sweden; the [[Unione Sindacale Italiana]] in Italy; [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]] in the United States; and [[Solidarity Federation]] in the United Kingdom. The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]] claiming 2,000 paying members as well as the International Workers Association, remain active. In the United States, there exists the [[Common Struggle|Common Struggle \u2013 Libertarian Communist Federation]].", "Since the 1950s, many American libertarian organizations have adopted a free-market stance as well as supporting civil liberties and non-interventionist foreign policies. These include the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]], [[Francisco Marroqu\u00edn University]], the [[Foundation for Economic Education]], [[Center for Libertarian Studies]], the [[Cato Institute]] and [[Liberty International (organization)|Liberty International]]. The activist [[Free State Project]], formed in 2001, works to bring 20,000 libertarians to New Hampshire to influence state policy. Active student organizations include [[Students for Liberty]] and [[Young Americans for Liberty]]. A number of countries have libertarian parties that run candidates for political office. In the United States, the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]] was formed in 1972 and is the third largest American political party, with 511,277 voters (0.46% of total electorate) registered as Libertarian in the 31 states that report Libertarian registration statistics and [[Washington, D.C.]]"], "Contemporary libertarianism": {"Contemporary libertarian socialism": ["A surge of popular interest in libertarian socialism occurred in Western nations during the 1960s and 1970s. Anarchism was influential in the [[counterculture of the 1960s]] and anarchists actively participated in the [[protests of 1968]] which included students and workers revolts. In 1968, the International of Anarchist Federations was founded in Carrara, Italy during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of [[Anarchist Federation (France)|France]], the [[Federazione Anarchica Italiana|Italian]] and the Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as the Bulgarian Anarchist Federation in French exile. The uprisings of [[May 1968 in France|May 1968]] also led to a small resurgence of interest in [[left communist]] ideas. Various small left communist groups emerged around the world, predominantly in the leading capitalist countries. A series of conferences of the communist left began in 1976, with the aim of promoting international and cross-tendency discussion, but these petered out in the 1980s without having increased the profile of the movement or its unity of ideas. Left communist groups existing today include the [[International Communist Party]], International Communist Current and the Internationalist Communist Tendency. The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of [[Commune (intentional community)|communes]] and [[Squatting|squatter]] movements like that of Barcelona in Spain. In Denmark, squatters occupied a disused military base and declared the [[Freetown Christiania]], an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen.", "Around the turn of the 21st century, libertarian socialism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist and [[anti-globalisation movement]]s. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), [[G8|Group of Eight]] and the [[World Economic Forum]]. Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with police. These actions were precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless, anonymous cadres known as [[black bloc]]s and other organizational tactics pioneered in this time include [[security culture]], [[affinity groups]] and the use of decentralized technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at [[World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity|WTO conference in Seattle in 1999]]. For English anarchist scholar [[Simon Critchley]], \"contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo-libertarianism of contemporary [[neo-liberalism]]. One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment and disenfranchisment that is so palpable locally and globally\". This might also have been motivated by \"the collapse of [[Real socialism|really existing socialism]] and the capitulation to [[neo-liberalism]] of Western [[social democracy]]\".", "Libertarian socialists in the early 21st century have been involved in the [[alter-globalization]] movement, squatter movement; [[social centers]]; [[infoshop]]s; anti-poverty groups such as [[Ontario Coalition Against Poverty]] and [[Food Not Bombs]]; [[Leasehold estate|tenants]] unions; [[housing cooperative]]s; [[Intentional community|intentional communities]] generally and [[egalitarian communities]]; anti-sexist organizing; grassroots media initiatives; digital media and computer activism; experiments in [[participatory economics]]; [[anti-racist]] and [[anti-fascist]] groups like [[Anti-Racist Action]] and [[Anti-Fascist Action]]; activist groups protecting the rights of immigrants and promoting the free movement of people such as the [[No Border network]]; [[worker co-operative]]s, [[countercultural]] and artist groups; and the peace movement."], "Contemporary libertarianism in the United States": ["In the United States, polls (circa 2006) find that the views and voting habits of between 10% and 20%, or more, of voting age Americans may be classified as \"[[fiscally conservative]] and [[Cultural liberalism|socially liberal]], or [[Libertarianism in the United States|libertarian]]\". This is based on pollsters and researchers defining libertarian views as fiscally conservative and socially liberal (based on the common United States meanings of the terms) and against government intervention in economic affairs and for expansion of personal freedoms. In a 2015 Gallup poll this figure had risen to 27%. A 2015 Reuters poll found that 23% of American voters self-identify as libertarians, including 32% in the 18\u201329 age group. Through twenty polls on this topic spanning thirteen years, Gallup found that voters who are libertarian on the political spectrum ranged from 17\u201323% of the United States electorate. However, a 2014 Pew Poll found that 23% of Americans who identify as libertarians have no idea what the word means. In this poll, 11% of respondents both identified as libertarians and understand what the term meant.", "2009 saw the rise of the [[Tea Party movement]], an American political movement known for advocating a reduction in the United States national debt and federal budget deficit by reducing government spending and taxes, which had a significant libertarian component despite having contrasts with libertarian values and views in some areas such as [[free trade]], [[immigration]], [[nationalism]] and [[social issues]]. A 2011 Reason-Rupe poll found that among those who self-identified as Tea Party supporters, 41 percent leaned libertarian and 59 percent [[Social conservatism in the United States|socially conservative]]. Named after the [[Boston Tea Party]], it also contains [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] and [[Right-wing populism#United States|populist]] elements and has sponsored multiple protests and supported various political candidates since 2009. Tea Party activities have declined since 2010 with the number of chapters across the country slipping from about 1,000 to 600. Mostly, Tea Party organizations are said to have shifted away from national demonstrations to local issues. Following the selection of [[Paul Ryan]] as [[Mitt Romney]]s [[Mitt Romney presidential campaign, 2012|2012]] vice presidential running mate, [[The New York Times]] declared that Tea Party lawmakers are no longer a fringe of the conservative coalition, but now \"indisputably at the core of the modern Republican Party\".", "In 2012, anti-war and pro-[[drug liberalization]] presidential candidates such as [[Libertarian Republican]] [[Ron Paul]] and Libertarian Party candidate [[Gary Johnson]] raised millions of dollars and garnered millions of votes despite opposition to their obtaining ballot access by both Democrats and Republicans. The [[2012 Libertarian National Convention]] saw Johnson and [[Jim Gray (jurist)|Jim Gray]] being nominated as the 2012 presidential ticket for the Libertarian Party, resulting in the most successful result for a third-party presidential candidacy since 2000 and the best in the Libertarian Partys history by vote number. Johnson received 1% of the popular vote, amounting to more than 1.2 million votes. Johnson has expressed a desire to win at least 5 percent of the vote so that the Libertarian Party candidates could get equal [[Election threshold|ballot access]] and [[Presidential election campaign fund checkoff|federal funding]], thus subsequently ending the [[two-party system]]. The [[2016 Libertarian National Convention]] saw Johnson and [[Bill Weld]] nominated as the 2016 presidential ticket and resulted in the most successful result for a third-party presidential candidacy since 1996 and the best in the Libertarian Partys history by vote number. Johnson received 3% of the popular vote, amounting to more than 4.3 million votes."]}, "Criticism": ["Criticism of libertarianism includes ethical, economic, environmental, pragmatic and philosophical concerns, especially in relation to [[right-libertarianism]], including the view that it has no explicit theory of liberty. It has been argued that [[laissez-faire]] [[capitalism]] does not necessarily produce the best or most efficient outcome, nor does its philosophy of [[individualism]] and policies of [[deregulation]] prevent the [[Exploitation of natural resources|abuse of natural resources]]. Critics such as [[Corey Robin]] describe this type of libertarianism as fundamentally a [[reactionary]] [[Conservatism|conservative]] ideology united with more [[Traditionalist conservatism|traditionalist conservative]] thought and goals by a desire to enforce hierarchical power and social relations.", "Similarly, [[Nancy MacLean]] has argued that libertarianism is a [[Radical right (United States)|radical right]] ideology that has stood against democracy. According to MacLean, libertarian-leaning [[Charles Koch|Charles]] and [[David Koch]] have used anonymous, [[dark money]] campaign contributions, a network of libertarian institutes and lobbying for the appointment of libertarian, pro-business judges to United States federal and state courts to oppose taxes, public education, employee protection laws, environmental protection laws and the [[New Deal]] [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] program.", "Moral and pragmatic criticism of libertarianism also includes allegations of utopianism, tacit authoritarianism and vandalism towards feats of civilisation."], "History": {"Anarchism": ["Modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, particularly [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]s arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.", "As part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought. According to [[Peter Kropotkin]], Godwin was \"the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work\" while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early [[Edmund Burke]].", "Godwin is generally regarded as the founder of the school of thought known as philosophical anarchism. He argued in Political Justice (1793) that government has an inherently malevolent influence on society and that it perpetuates dependency and ignorance. He thought that the spread of the use of reason to the masses would eventually cause government to wither away as an unnecessary force. Although he did not accord the state with moral legitimacy, he was against the use of revolutionary tactics for removing the government from power. Rather, Godwin advocated for its replacement through a process of peaceful evolution.", "His aversion to the imposition of a rules-based society led him to denounce, as a manifestation of the peoples \"mental enslavement\", the foundations of law, property rights and even the institution of marriage. Godwin considered the basic foundations of society as constraining the natural development of individuals to use their powers of reasoning to arrive at a mutually beneficial method of social organization. In each case, government and its institutions are shown to constrain the development of our capacity to live wholly in accordance with the full and free exercise of private judgment.", "In France, various anarchist currents were present during the Revolutionary period, with some revolutionaries using the term anarchiste in a positive light as early as September 1793. The [[enrag\u00e9s]] opposed revolutionary government as a contradiction in terms. Denouncing the [[Jacobin Club|Jacobin]] dictatorship, [[Jean Varlet]] wrote in 1794 that \"government and revolution are incompatible, unless the people wishes to set its constituted authorities in permanent insurrection against itself\". In his \"Manifesto of the Equals\", [[Sylvain Mar\u00e9chal]] looked forward to the disappearance, once and for all, of \"the revolting distinction between rich and poor, of great and small, of masters and valets, of governors and governed\"."], "Georgism and geolibertarianism": ["[[Henry George]] was an American political economist and journalist who advocated that all economic value derived from land, including [[natural resources]], should belong equally to all members of society. Strongly opposed to [[feudalism]] and the [[Land tenure|privatisation of land]], George created the philosophy of [[Georgism]], or [[geoism]], influential among many left-libertarians, including [[Geolibertarianism|geolibertarians]] and [[geoanarchists]]. Much like the English [[The Diggers|Digger movement]], [[Communism|who held all material possessions in common]], George claimed that land and its financial properties belong to everyone, and that to hold land as [[private property]] would lead to immense inequalities, including authority from the private owners of such ground.", "Prior to [[State (polity)|states]] assigning property owners slices of either once populated or uninhabited land, the worlds earth was held in common. When all resources that derive from land are put to achieving a higher quality of life, not just for [[Ruling class|employers or landlords]], but to serve the general interests and comforts of a wider community, Geolibertarians claim vastly higher qualities of life can be reached, especially with ever advancing technology and industrialised agriculture.", "The [[Levellers]], also known as the Diggers, were a 17th-century [[anti-authoritarian]] movement that stood in resistance to the English government and the [[feudalism]] it was pushing through the forced privatisation of land known as the [[enclosure]] around the time of the [[First English Civil War]]. Devout [[Protestantism|Protestants]], [[Gerrard Winstanley]] was a prominent member of the community and with a very progressive interpretation of his religion sought to end buying and selling, instead for all inhabitants of a society to share their material possessions and to hold all things in common, without money or payment. With the complete abolition of private property, including that of private land, the English Levellers created a pool of property where all properties belonged in equal measure to everyone. Often seen as some of the first practising anarchists, the Digger movement is considered [[Christian communist]] and extremely early [[libertarian communism]]."], "Individualist anarchism in the United States": ["The indigenous anarchist tradition in the United States was largely [[Individualism|individualist]]. In 1825, Josiah Warren became aware of the social system of [[utopian socialist]] [[Robert Owen]] and began to talk with others in Cincinnati about founding a [[communist]] colony. When this group failed to come to an agreement about the form and goals of their proposed community, Warren \"sold his factory after only two years of operation, packed up his young family, and took his place as one of 900 or so Owenites who had decided to become part of the founding population of [[New Harmony, Indiana|New Harmony]], Indiana\". Warren termed the phrase \"[[cost the limit of price]]\" and \"proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating how many hours of work they did. They could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce\". He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental labor-for-labor store called the [[Cincinnati Time Store]] where trade was facilitated by [[labor note]]s. The store proved successful and operated for three years, after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on mutualism, including [[Utopia, Ohio|Utopia]] and [[past and present anarchist communities#Modern Times (1851 to late 1860s)|Modern Times]]. After New Harmony failed, Warren shifted his \"ideological loyalties\" from socialism to anarchism \"which was no great leap, given that Owens socialism had been predicated on Godwins anarchism\". Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist and the four-page weekly paper The Peaceful Revolutionist he edited during 1833 was the first anarchist periodical published, an enterprise for which he built his own printing press, cast his own type and made his own printing plates.", "For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, \"[i]t is apparent that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews. William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form\". William Batchelder Greene was a 19th-century mutualist individualist anarchist, [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] minister, soldier and promoter of free banking in the United States. Greene is best known for the works Mutual Banking, which proposed an interest-free banking system; and Transcendentalism, a critique of the New England philosophical school. After 1850, he became active in labor reform. He was elected vice president of the New England Labor Reform League, \"the majority of the members holding to Proudhons scheme of mutual banking, and in 1869 president of the Massachusetts Labor Union\". Greene then published Socialistic, Mutualistic, and Financial Fragments (1875). He saw mutualism as the synthesis of \"liberty and order\". His \"associationism [...] is checked by individualism. [...] Mind your own business, Judge not that ye be not judged. Over matters which are purely personal, as for example, moral conduct, the individual is sovereign, as well as over that which he himself produces. For this reason he demands mutuality in marriage\u2014the equal right of a woman to her own personal freedom and property\".", "Poet, naturalist and [[transcendentalist]] [[Henry David Thoreau]] was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. He is best known for his book [[Walden]], a reflection upon [[simple living]] in natural surroundings; and his essay [[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]] (Resistance to Civil Government), an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. In Walden, Thoreau advocates simple living and self-sufficiency among natural surroundings in resistance to the advancement of industrial civilization. Civil Disobedience, first published in 1849, argues that people should not permit governments to overrule or atrophy their consciences and that people have a duty to avoid allowing such acquiescence to enable the government to make them the agents of injustice. These works influenced [[green anarchism]], [[anarcho-primitivism]] and [[anarcho-pacifism]] as well as figures including [[Mohandas Gandhi]], [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[Martin Buber]] and [[Leo Tolstoy]]. For George Woodcock, this attitude can be also motivated by certain idea of resistance to progress and of rejection of the growing materialism which is the nature of American society in the mid-19th century\". Zerzan included Thoreaus \"Excursions\" in his edited compilation of anti-civilization writings, [[Against Civilization: Readings and Reflections]]. Individualist anarchists such as Thoreau do not speak of economics, but simply the right of disunion from the state and foresee the gradual elimination of the state through social evolution. [[Agorist]] author [[J. Neil Schulman]] cites Thoreau as a primary inspiration.", "Many economists since Adam Smith have argued that\u2014unlike other taxes\u2014a land value tax would not cause economic inefficiency. It would be a [[progressive tax]], i.e. a tax paid primarily by the wealthy, that increases wages, reduces [[economic inequality]], removes incentives to misuse real estate and reduces the vulnerability that economies face from credit and property bubbles. Early proponents of this view include Thomas Paine, Herbert Spencer and [[Hugo Grotius]], but the concept was widely popularized by the economist and social reformer [[Henry George]]. George believed that people ought to own the fruits of their labor and the value of the improvements they make and therefore he was opposed to income taxes, sales taxes, taxes on improvements and all other taxes on production, labor, trade or commerce. George was among the staunchest defenders of [[free market]]s and his book [[Protection or Free Trade]] was read into the [[Congressional Record]]. Nonetheless, he did support direct management of [[natural monopolies]] such as right-of-way monopolies necessary for railroads as a last resort and advocated for elimination of intellectual property arrangements in favor of government sponsored prizes for inventors. In [[Progress and Poverty]], George argued: \"Our boasted freedom necessarily involves slavery, so long as we recognize private property in land. Until that is abolished, Declarations of Independence and Acts of Emancipation are in vain. So long as one man can claim the exclusive ownership of the land from which other men must live, slavery will exist, and as material progress goes on, must grow and deepen!\" Early followers of Georges philosophy called themselves [[single tax]]ers because they believed that the only legitimate, broad-based tax was [[land rent]]. The term [[Georgism]] was coined later, though some modern proponents prefer the term geoism instead, leaving the meaning of geo (Earth in Greek) deliberately ambiguous. The terms Earth Sharing, geonomics and [[geolibertarianism]] are used by some Georgists to represent a difference of emphasis, or real differences about how land rent should be spent, but all agree that land rent should be recovered from its private owners.", "Individualist anarchism found in the United States an important space for discussion and development within the group known as the Boston anarchists. Even among the 19th-century American individualists there was no monolithic doctrine and they disagreed amongst each other on various issues including [[intellectual property]] rights and [[Possession (law)|possession]] versus [[property]] in land. Some Boston anarchists, including Benjamin Tucker, identified as socialists, which in the 19th century was often used in the sense of a commitment to improving conditions of the working class (i.e. \"[[the labor problem]]\"). Lysander Spooner, besides his individualist anarchist activism, was also an anti-slavery activist and member of the First International. Tucker argued that the elimination of what he called \"the four monopolies\"\u2014the land monopoly, the money and banking monopoly, the monopoly powers conferred by patents and the quasi-monopolistic effects of tariffs\u2014would undermine the power of the wealthy and big business, making possible widespread property ownership and higher incomes for ordinary people, while minimizing the power of would-be bosses and achieving socialist goals without state action. Tuckers anarchist periodical, Liberty, was published from August 1881 to April 1908.", "The publication Liberty, emblazoned with Proudhons quote that liberty is \"Not the Daughter But the Mother of Order\" was instrumental in developing and formalizing the individualist anarchist philosophy through publishing essays and serving as a forum for debate. Contributors included Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner, [[Auberon Herbert]], [[Dyer Lum]], [[Joshua K. Ingalls]], John Henry Mackay, [[Victor Yarros]], [[Wordsworth Donisthorpe]], [[James L. Walker]], [[J. William Lloyd]], [[Florence Finch Kelly]], Voltairine de Cleyre, [[Steven T. Byington]], [[John Beverley Robinson (anarchist)|John Beverley Robinson]], [[Jo Labadie]], [[Lillian Harman]] and [[Henry Appleton (anarchist)|Henry Appleton]]. Later, Tucker and others abandoned their traditional support of [[natural right]]s and converted to an egoism modeled upon the [[philosophy of Max Stirner]]. A number of natural rights proponents stopped contributing in protest. Several periodicals were undoubtedly influenced by Libertys presentation of egoism, including I published by [[Clarence Lee Swartz]] and edited by William Walstein Gordak and [[J. William Lloyd]] (all associates of Liberty); and The Ego and The Egoist, both of which were edited by Edward H. Fulton. Among the egoist papers that Tucker followed were the German [[Der Eigene]], edited by [[Adolf Brand]]; and The Eagle and The Serpent, issued from London. The latter, the most prominent English language egoist journal, was published from 1898 to 1900 with the subtitle A Journal of Egoistic Philosophy and Sociology."], "Liberalism": ["Although elements of libertarianism can be traced as far back as the ancient Chinese philosopher [[Lao-Tzu]] and the higher-law concepts of the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[Israelites]], it was in 17th-century England that libertarian ideas began to take modern form in the writings of the [[Levellers]] and [[John Locke]]. In the middle of that century, opponents of royal power began to be called [[Whigs (British political party)|Whigs]], or sometimes simply Opposition or Country, as opposed to Court writers.", "During the 18th century and [[Age of Enlightenment]], [[Liberalism|liberal]] ideas flourished in Europe and North America. Libertarians of various schools were influenced by liberal ideas. For philosopher [[Roderick T. Long]], libertarians \"share a common\u2014or at least an overlapping\u2014intellectual ancestry. [Libertarians] [...] claim the seventeenth century English Levellers and the eighteenth century [[French Encyclop\u00e9distes|French encyclopedists]] among their ideological forebears; and [...] usually share an admiration for [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Thomas Paine]]\".", "John Locke greatly influenced both libertarianism and the modern world in his writings published before and after the [[Glorious Revolution|English Revolution of 1688]], especially [[A Letter Concerning Toleration]] (1667), [[Two Treatises of Government]] (1689) and [[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]] (1690). In the text of 1689, he established the basis of liberal political theory, i.e. that peoples rights existed before government; that the purpose of government is to protect personal and property rights; that people may dissolve governments that do not do so; and that representative government is the best form to protect rights.", "The [[United States Declaration of Independence]] was inspired by Locke in its statement: \"[T]o secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the [[consent of the governed]]. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it\". Nevertheless, scholar [[Ellen Meiksins Wood]] says that \"there are doctrines of individualism that are opposed to Lockean individualism [...] and non-Lockean individualism may encompass socialism\".", "According to [[Murray Rothbard]], the libertarian creed emerged from the liberal challenges to an \"absolute central State and a king ruling by divine right on top of an older, restrictive web of feudal land monopolies and urban guild controls and restrictions\" as well as the [[mercantilism]] of a bureaucratic warfaring state allied with privileged merchants. The object of liberals was individual liberty in the economy, in personal freedoms and civil liberty, separation of state and religion and peace as an alternative to imperial aggrandizement. He cites Lockes contemporaries, the Levellers, who held similar views. Also influential were the English [[Catos Letters]] during the early 1700s, reprinted eagerly by [[Colonial history of the United States|American colonists]] who already were free of European aristocracy and feudal land monopolies.", "In January 1776, only two years after coming to America from England, Thomas Paine published his pamphlet [[Common Sense (pamphlet)|Common Sense]] calling for independence for the colonies. Paine promoted liberal ideas in clear and concise language that allowed the general public to understand the debates among the political elites. Common Sense was immensely popular in disseminating these ideas, selling hundreds of thousands of copies. Paine would later write the [[Rights of Man]] and [[The Age of Reason]] and participate in the [[French Revolution]]. Paines theory of property showed a \"libertarian concern\" with the redistribution of resources.", "In 1793, [[William Godwin]] wrote a libertarian philosophical treatise titled [[Enquiry Concerning Political Justice|Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Morals and Happiness]] which criticized ideas of human rights and of society by contract based on vague promises. He took liberalism to its logical anarchic conclusion by rejecting all political institutions, law, government and apparatus of coercion as well as all political protest and insurrection. Instead of institutionalized justice, Godwin proposed that people influence one another to moral goodness through informal reasoned persuasion, including in the associations they joined as this would facilitate happiness."], "Libertarian socialism": ["[[Libertarian communism]], [[libertarian Marxism]] and [[libertarian socialism]] are all terms which activists with a variety of perspectives have applied to their views. Anarchist communist philosopher [[Joseph D\u00e9jacque]] was the first person to describe himself as a libertarian. Unlike mutualist anarchist philosopher [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], he argued that \"it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature\". According to anarchist historian [[Max Nettlau]], the first use of the term libertarian communism was in November 1880, when a French anarchist congress employed it to more clearly identify its doctrines. The French anarchist journalist [[S\u00e9bastien Faure]] started the weekly paper Le Libertaire (The Libertarian) in 1895.", "Individualist anarchism represents several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the [[individual]] and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. An influential form of individualist anarchism called egoism or [[egoist anarchism]] was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German [[Max Stirner]]. Stirners [[The Ego and Its Own]], published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy. According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire, without regard for God, state or morality. Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw [[Union of egoists|unions of egoists]], non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties support through an act of will, which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the [[State (polity)|state]]. Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals. Egoism has inspired many interpretations of [[Philosophy of Max Stirner|Stirners philosophy]]. Stirners philosophy was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and [[LGBT]] activist [[John Henry Mackay]]. Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist, and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published. For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, \"[i]t is apparent [...] that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]]. [...] [[William B. Greene]] presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form\".", "Later, Benjamin Tucker fused Stirners egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication Liberty. From these early influences, individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a small yet diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals, free love and [[birth control]] advocates ([[anarchism and issues related to love and sex]]), individualist [[naturist]]s [[nudist]]s ([[anarcho-naturism]]), free thought and [[Anti-clericalism|anti-clerical]] activists as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as [[illegalism]] and [[individual reclamation]] ([[European individualist anarchism]] and [[individualist anarchism in France]]). These authors and activists included [[\u00c9mile Armand]], [[Han Ryner]], [[Henri Zisly]], [[Renzo Novatore]], [[Miguel Gimenez Igualada]], [[Adolf Brand]] and [[Lev Chernyi]].", "In 1873, the follower and translator of Proudhon, the Catalan [[Francesc Pi i Margall]], became [[President of Spain]] with a program which wanted \"to establish a decentralized, or \"cantonalist,\" political system on Proudhonian lines\", who according to [[Rudolf Rocker]] had \"political ideas, [...] much in common with those of [[Richard Price]], [[Joseph Priestly]] [sic], Thomas Paine, Jefferson, and other representatives of the Anglo-American liberalism of the first period. He wanted to limit the power of the state to a minimum and gradually replace it by a Socialist economic order\". On the other hand, [[Ferm\u00edn Salvochea]] was a mayor of the city of [[C\u00e1diz]] and a president of the [[C\u00e1diz (province)|province of C\u00e1diz]]. He was one of the main propagators of [[anarchist]] thought in that area in the late 19th century and is considered to be \"perhaps the most beloved figure in the [[Anarchism in Spain|Spanish Anarchist]] movement of the 19th century\". Ideologically, he was influenced by [[Charles Bradlaugh|Bradlaugh]], [[Robert Owen|Owen]] and [[Thomas Paine|Paine]], whose works he had studied during his stay in [[England]] and [[Kropotkin]], whom he read later.", "The [[Revolutions of 1917\u20131923|revolutionary wave of 1917\u20131923]] saw the active participation of anarchists in Russia and Europe. Russian anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolshevik]]s in both the [[February Revolution|February]] and [[October Revolution|October]] 1917 revolutions. However, Bolsheviks in central Russia quickly began to imprison or drive underground the libertarian anarchists. Many fled to the Ukraine, where they fought to defend the [[Free Territory (Ukraine)|Free Territory]] in the [[Russian Civil War]] against the [[White movement]], monarchists and other opponents of revolution and then against Bolsheviks as part of the [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]] led by [[Nestor Makhno]], who established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months. Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and [[Alexander Berkman]] protested Bolshevik policy before they left Russia. The victory of the Bolsheviks damaged anarchist movements internationally as workers and activists joined [[Communist party|Communist parties]]. In France and the United States, for example, members of the major syndicalist movements of the [[Conf\u00e9d\u00e9ration g\u00e9n\u00e9rale du travail|CGT]] and [[Industrial Workers of the World|IWW]] joined the [[Comintern|Communist International]]. In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles which included Nestor Makhno issued a 1926 manifesto, the [[Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)]], calling for new anarchist organizing structures.", "In Germany, the [[Bavarian Soviet Republic]] of 1918\u20131919 had libertarian socialist characteristics. In Italy, the anarcho-syndicalist trade union [[Unione Sindacale Italiana]] grew to 800,000 members from 1918 to 1921 during the so-called [[Biennio Rosso]]. With the rise of [[fascism]] in Europe between the 1920s and the 1930s, anarchists began to fight fascists in Italy, in France during the [[6 February 1934 crisis|February 1934 riots]] and in Spain where the [[Confederaci\u00f3n Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] (Confederaci\u00f3n Nacional del Trabajo) boycott of elections led to a right-wing victory and its later participation in voting in 1936 helped bring the popular front back to power. This led to a ruling class attempted coup and the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936\u20131939). Gruppo Comunista Anarchico di Firenze held that the during early twentieth century, the terms libertarian communism and anarchist communism became synonymous within the international anarchist movement as a result of the close connection they had in Spain ([[anarchism in Spain]]), with libertarian communism becoming the prevalent term.", "[[Murray Bookchin]] wrote that the Spanish libertarian movement of the mid-1930s was unique because its workers control and collectives\u2014which came out of a three-generation \"massive libertarian movement\"\u2014divided the republican camp and challenged the Marxists. \"Urban anarchists\" created libertarian communist forms of organization which evolved into the CNT, a syndicalist union providing the infrastructure for a libertarian society. Also formed were local bodies to administer social and economic life on a decentralized libertarian basis. Much of the infrastructure was destroyed during the 1930s Spanish Civil War against authoritarian and fascist forces.", "The [[Iberian Federation of Libertarian Youth]] (FIJL, Spanish: Federaci\u00f3n Ib\u00e9rica de Juventudes Libertarias), sometimes abbreviated as Libertarian Youth (Juventudes Libertarias), was a libertarian socialist organization created in 1932 in [[Madrid]]. At its second congress in February 1937, the FIJL organized a plenum of regional organizations. In October 1938, from the 16th through the 30th in Barcelona the FIJL participated in a national plenum of the libertarian movement, also attended by members of the CNT and the [[Iberian Anarchist Federation]] (FAI). The FIJL exists until today. When the republican forces lost the Spanish Civil War, the city of Madrid was turned over to the Francoist forces in 1939 by the last non-Francoist mayor of the city, the anarchist [[Melchor Rodr\u00edguez Garc\u00eda]]. During autumn of 1931, the \"Manifesto of the 30\" was published by militants of the anarchist trade union CNT and among those who signed it there was the CNT General Secretary (1922\u20131923) Joan Peiro, [[Angel Pesta\u00f1a]] CNT (General Secretary in 1929) and Juan Lopez Sanchez. They were called treintismo and they were calling for [[libertarian possibilism]] which advocated achieving libertarian socialist ends with participation inside structures of contemporary [[parliamentary democracy]]. In 1932, they establish the [[Syndicalist Party]] which participates in the 1936 Spanish general elections and proceed to be a part of the leftist coalition of parties known as the [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]] obtaining two congressmen (Pesta\u00f1a and Benito Pabon). In 1938, Horacio Prieto, general secretary of the CNT, proposes that the [[Iberian Anarchist Federation]] transforms itself into the Libertarian Socialist Party and that it participates in the national elections.", "The Manifesto of Libertarian Communism was written in 1953 by Georges Fontenis for the Federation Communiste Libertaire of France. It is one of the key texts of the anarchist-communist current known as [[platformism]]. In 1968, the [[International of Anarchist Federations]] was founded during an international anarchist conference in [[Carrara]], Italy to advance libertarian solidarity. It wanted to form \"a strong and organized workers movement, agreeing with the libertarian ideas\". In the United States, the [[Libertarian League]] was founded in New York City in 1954 as a left-libertarian political organization building on the Libertarian Book Club. Members included [[Sam Dolgoff]], Russell Blackwell, [[Dave Van Ronk]], [[Enrico Arrigoni]] and Murray Bookchin.", "In Australia, the [[Sydney Push]] was a predominantly left-wing intellectual subculture in [[Sydney]] from the late 1940s to the early 1970s which became associated with the label Sydney libertarianism. Well known associates of the Push include [[A. J. Baker|Jim Baker]], [[John Flaus]], [[Harry Hooton]], [[Margaret Fink]], Sasha Soldatow, [[Lex Banning]], [[Eva Cox]], [[Richard Appleton]], [[Padraic McGuinness|Paddy McGuinness]], [[David Makinson]], [[Germaine Greer]], [[Clive James]], [[Robert Hughes (critic)|Robert Hughes]], [[Frank Moorhouse]] and [[Lillian Roxon]]. Amongst the key intellectual figures in Push debates were philosophers David J. Ivison, [[George Molnar (philosopher)|George Molnar]], Roelof Smilde, Darcy Waters and Jim Baker, as recorded in Bakers memoir Sydney Libertarians and the Push, published in the libertarian Broadsheet in 1975. An understanding of libertarian values and social theory can be obtained from their publications, a few of which are available online.", "In 1969, French [[platformist]] anarcho-communist [[Daniel Gu\u00e9rin]] published an essay in 1969 called \"Libertarian Marxism?\" in which he dealt with the debate between [[Karl Marx]] and [[Mikhail Bakunin]] at the [[First International]] and afterwards suggested that \"libertarian Marxism rejects determinism and fatalism, giving the greater place to individual will, intuition, imagination, reflex speeds, and to the deep instincts of the masses, which are more far-seeing in hours of crisis than the reasonings of the elites; libertarian Marxism thinks of the effects of surprise, provocation and boldness, refuses to be cluttered and paralyzed by a heavy scientific apparatus, doesnt equivocate or bluff, and guards itself from adventurism as much as from fear of the unknown\".", "Libertarian Marxist currents often draw from Marx and Engels later works, specifically the [[Grundrisse]] and [[The Civil War in France]]. They emphasize the Marxist belief in the ability of the working class to forge its own destiny without the need for a revolutionary party or state. Libertarian Marxism includes currents such an [[autonomism]], [[council communism]], [[left communism]], [[Letterist International|Lettrism]], [[New Left]], [[Situationism]], [[Socialisme ou Barbarie]] and [[operaismo]], among others.", "In the United States, there existed from 1970 to 1981 the publication Root & Branch which had as a subtitle A Libertarian Marxist Journal. In 1974, the [[Libertarian Communism (journal)|Libertarian Communism]] journal was started in the United Kingdom by a group inside the [[Socialist Party of Great Britain]]. In 1986, the anarcho-syndicalist Sam Dolgoff started and led the publication [[Libertarian Labor Review]] in the United States which decided to rename itself as [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Review]] in order to avoid confusion with right-libertarian views."], "Modern libertarianism in the United States": ["By around the start of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed. [[H. L. Mencken]] and [[Albert Jay Nock]] were the first prominent figures in the United States to describe themselves as libertarian as synonym for liberal. They believed that [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] had co-opted the word liberal for his [[New Deal]] policies which they opposed and used libertarian to signify their allegiance to [[classical liberalism]], [[individualism]] and [[limited government]]. In 1914, Nock joined the staff of [[The Nation]] magazine which at the time was supportive of liberal capitalism. A lifelong admirer of Henry George, Nock went on to become co-editor of [[The Freeman#Earlier publications called The Freeman|The Freeman]] from 1920 to 1924, a publication initially conceived as a vehicle for the single tax movement, financed by the wealthy wife of the magazines other editor [[Francis Neilson]]. Critic H. L. Mencken wrote that \"[h]is editorials during the three brief years of the Freeman set a mark that no other man of his trade has ever quite managed to reach. They were well-informed and sometimes even learned, but there was never the slightest trace of pedantry in them\".", "In 1946, [[Leonard E. Read]] founded the [[Foundation for Economic Education]] (FEE), an American nonprofit educational organization which promotes the principles of laissez-faire economics, private property and limited government. According to Gary North, former FEE director of seminars and a current [[Mises Institute]] scholar, the FEE is the \"granddaddy of all libertarian organizations\". The initial officers of the FEE were Leonard E. Read as president, Austrian School economist [[Henry Hazlitt]] as vice president and David Goodrich of [[B. F. Goodrich]] as chairman. Other trustees on the FEE board have included wealthy industrialist Jasper Crane of [[DuPont]], H. W. Luhnow of William Volker & Co. and [[Robert W. Welch Jr.]], founder of the [[John Birch Society]].", "[[Austrian School]] economist Murray Rothbard was initially an enthusiastic partisan of the [[Old Right (United States)|Old Right]], particularly because of its general opposition to war and imperialism, but long embraced a reading of American history that emphasized the role of elite privilege in shaping legal and political institutions. He was part of [[Ayn Rand]]s circle for a brief period, but later harshly criticized Objectivism. He praised Rands [[Atlas Shrugged]] and wrote that she \"introduced me to the whole field of natural rights and natural law philosophy\", prompting him to learn \"the glorious natural rights tradition\". He soon broke with Rand over various differences, including his defense of anarchism, calling his philosophy anarcho-capitalism. Rothbard was influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists and sought to meld their advocacy of free markets and private defense with the principles of Austrian economics.", "[[Karl Hess]], a speechwriter for [[Barry Goldwater]] and primary author of the Republican Partys 1960 and 1964 [[Party platform|platforms]], became disillusioned with traditional politics following the [[1964 United States presidential election|1964 presidential campaign]] in which Goldwater lost to [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. He parted with the Republicans altogether after being rejected for employment with the party, and began work as a heavy-duty welder. Hess began reading American anarchists largely due to the recommendations of his friend Murray Rothbard and said that upon reading the works of communist anarchist Emma Goldman, he discovered that anarchists believed everything he had hoped the Republican Party would represent. For Hess, Goldman was the source for the best and most essential theories of [[Ayn Rand]] without any of the \"crazy [[solipsism]] that Rand was so fond of\". Hess and Rothbard founded the journal [[Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought]], which was published from 1965 to 1968, with George Resch and [[Leonard P. Liggio]]. In 1969, they edited [[The Libertarian Forum]] which Hess left in 1971. Hess eventually put his focus on the small scale, stating that society is \"people together making culture\". He deemed two of his cardinal social principles to be \"opposition to central political authority\" and \"concern for people as individuals\". His rejection of standard American [[Politics of the United States|party politics]] was reflected in a lecture he gave during which he said: \"The Democrats or liberals think that everybody is stupid and therefore they need somebody [...] to tell them how to behave themselves. The Republicans think everybody is lazy\".", "The [[Vietnam War]] split the uneasy alliance between growing numbers of American libertarians and conservatives who believed in limiting liberty to uphold moral virtues. Libertarians opposed to the war joined the [[Draft dodger|draft resistance]] and [[peace movement]]s as well as organizations such as [[Students for a Democratic Society]] (SDS). In 1969 and 1970, Hess joined with others, including Murray Rothbard, [[Robert LeFevre]], [[Dana Rohrabacher]], [[Samuel Edward Konkin III]] and former SDS leader [[Carl Oglesby]] to speak at two conferences which brought together activists from both the New Left and the Old Right in what was emerging as a nascent libertarian movement. As part of his effort to unite the left and right wings of libertarianism, Hess would join both the SDS and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), of which he explained: \"We used to have a labor movement in this country, until I.W.W. leaders were killed or imprisoned. You could tell labor unions had become captive when business and government began to praise them. Theyre destroying the militant black leaders the same way now. If the slaughter continues, before long liberals will be asking, What happened to the blacks? Why arent they militant anymore?\" Rothbard ultimately broke with the left, allying himself with the burgeoning [[paleoconservative]] movement. He criticized the tendency of these libertarians to appeal to \"free spirits, to people who dont want to push other people around, and who dont want to be pushed around themselves\" in contrast to \"the bulk of Americans\" who \"might well be tight-assed conformists, who want to stamp out drugs in their vicinity, kick out people with strange dress habits, etc.\" Rothbard emphasized that this was relevant as a matter of strategy as the failure to pitch the libertarian message to Middle America might result in the loss of \"the tight-assed majority\". This [[Left-wing market anarchism|left-libertarian]] tradition has been carried to the present day by Konkin IIIs [[agorist]]s, contemporary mutualists such as [[Kevin Carson]], [[Roderick T. Long]] and others such as [[Gary Chartier]] Charles W. Johnson Sheldon Richman, [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra]] and Brad Spangler.", "In 1971, a small group of Americans led by [[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]] formed the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]], which has run a presidential candidate every election year since 1972. Other libertarian organizations, such as the [[Center for Libertarian Studies]] and the Cato Institute, were also formed in the 1970s. Philosopher [[John Hospers]], a one-time member of Rands inner circle, proposed a non-initiation of force principle to unite both groups, but this statement later became a required \"pledge\" for candidates of the Libertarian Party and Hospers became its first presidential candidate in 1972. In the 1980s, Hess joined the Libertarian Party and served as editor of its newspaper from 1986 to 1990. According to Maureen Tkacik, Hess moved to the radical left and was the ideological grandfather of the anti-1% and pro-[[We are the 99%|99%]] movement, the direct antecedent of thinkers like [[Ron Paul]] and both the [[Tea Party movement]] and the [[Occupy movement]].", "Modern libertarianism gained significant recognition in academia with the publication of Harvard University professor [[Robert Nozick]]s [[Anarchy, State, and Utopia]] in 1974, for which he received a National Book Award in 1975. In response to [[John Rawls]]s [[A Theory of Justice]], Nozicks book supported a [[Night-watchman state|minimal state]] (also called a nightwatchman state by Nozick) on the grounds that the ultraminimal state arises without violating [[individual rights]] and the transition from an ultraminimal state to a minimal state is morally obligated to occur. Specifically, Nozick wrote: \"We argue that the first transition from a system of private protective agencies to an ultraminimal state, will occur by an invisible-hand process in a morally permissible way that violates no ones rights. Secondly, we argue that the transition from an ultraminimal state to a minimal state morally must occur. It would be morally impermissible for persons to maintain the monopoly in the ultraminimal state without providing protective services for all, even if this requires specific redistribution. The operators of the ultraminimal state are morally obligated to produce the minimal state\".", "In the early 1970s, Rothbard wrote: \"One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that, for the first time in my memory, we, our side, had captured a crucial word from the enemy. Libertarians had long been simply a polite word for left-wing anarchists, that is for anti-private property anarchists, either of the communist or syndicalist variety. But now we had taken it over\". The project of spreading libertarian ideals in the United States has been so successful that some Americans who do not identify as libertarian seem to hold libertarian views. Since the resurgence of neoliberalism in the 1970s, this modern American libertarianism has spread beyond North America via think tanks and political parties."]}, "Overview": {"Definition": ["Although libertarianism originated as a form of [[left-wing politics]], the development in the mid-20th century of modern [[libertarianism in the United States]] led several authors and political scientists to use two or more categorizations to distinguish libertarian views on the nature of property and capital, usually along left\u2013right or socialist\u2013capitalist lines, Unlike right-libertarians, who reject the label due to its association with [[conservatism]] and [[right-wing politics]], calling themselves simply libertarians, proponents of [[free-market anti-capitalism]] in the United States consciously label themselves as left-libertarians and see themselves as being part of a broad libertarian left.", "While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with [[anarchism]] as part of the left, continuing today as part of the libertarian left in opposition to the moderate left such as [[social democracy]] or [[Authoritarian socialism|authoritarian]] and [[State socialism|statist]] socialism, its meaning has more recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups, including the right. As a term, libertarian can include both the [[New Left]] Marxists (who do not associate with a [[vanguard party]]) and extreme liberals (primarily concerned with [[civil liberties]]) or [[civil libertarians]]. Additionally, some libertarians use the term [[libertarian socialist]] to avoid anarchisms negative connotations and emphasize its connections with socialism.", "The revival of free-market ideologies during the mid- to late 20th century came with disagreement over what to call the movement. While many of its adherents prefer the term libertarian, many [[conservative libertarian]]s reject the terms association with the 1960s New Left and its connotations of [[libertine]] hedonism. The movement is divided over the use of conservatism as an alternative. Those who seek both economic and social liberty would be known as liberals, but that term developed associations opposite of the [[limited government]], low-taxation, minimal state advocated by the movement. Name variants of the free-market revival movement include [[classical liberalism]], [[economic liberalism]], [[free-market liberalism]] and [[neoliberalism]]. As a term, libertarian or economic libertarian has the most colloquial acceptance to describe a member of the movement, with the latter term being based on both the ideologys primacy of economics and its distinction from libertarians of the New Left.", "While both historical libertarianism and contemporary economic libertarianism share general antipathy towards power by government authority, the latter exempts power wielded through [[free-market capitalism]]. Historically, libertarians including [[Herbert Spencer]] and [[Max Stirner]] supported the protection of an individuals freedom from powers of government and private ownership. In contrast, while condemning governmental encroachment on personal liberties, modern American libertarians support freedoms on the basis of their agreement with private property rights. The abolishment of public amenities is a common theme in modern American libertarian writings.", "According to modern American libertarian [[Walter Block]], left-libertarians and right-libertarians agree with certain libertarian premises, but \"where [they] differ is in terms of the logical implications of these founding axioms\". Although several modern American libertarians reject the [[political spectrum]], especially the [[left\u2013right political spectrum]], several strands of libertarianism in the United States and right-libertarianism have been described as being right-wing, [[New Right]] or [[Far-right politics|radical right]] and [[reactionary]]. While some American libertarians such as [[Walter Block]], [[Harry Browne]], [[Tibor Machan]], [[Justin Raimondo]], [[Leonard Read]] and [[Murray Rothbard]] deny any association with either the left or right, other American libertarians such as [[Kevin Carson]], [[Karl Hess]], and [[Roderick T. Long]] have written about libertarianisms left wing opposition to authoritarian rule and argued that libertarianism is fundamentally a left-wing position. Rothbard himself previously made the same point."], "Etymology": ["The first recorded use of the term libertarian was in 1789, when [[William Belsham]] wrote about [[Libertarianism (metaphysics)|libertarianism]] in the context of metaphysics. As early as 1796, libertarian came to mean an advocate or defender of liberty, especially in the political and social spheres, when the London Packet printed on 12 February the following: \"Lately marched out of the Prison at Bristol, 450 of the French Libertarians\". It was again used in a political sense in 1802 in a short piece critiquing a poem by \"the author of Gebir\" and has since been used with this meaning.", "The use of the term libertarian to describe a new set of political positions has been traced to the French cognate libertaire, coined in a letter French [[libertarian communist]] [[Joseph D\u00e9jacque]] wrote to [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualist]] [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in 1857. D\u00e9jacque also used the term for his [[List of anarchist periodicals|anarchist publication]] [[Le Libertaire, Journal du mouvement social]] (Libertarian: Journal of Social Movement) which was printed from 9 June 1858 to 4 February 1861 in New York City. [[S\u00e9bastien Faure]], another French libertarian communist, began publishing a new Le Libertaire in the mid-1890s while Frances [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] enacted the so-called villainous laws ([[lois sc\u00e9l\u00e9rates]]) which banned anarchist publications in France. Libertarianism has frequently been used to refer to [[anarchism]] and [[libertarian socialism]] since this time.", "Subsequently, a growing number of Americans with classical liberal beliefs began to describe themselves as libertarians. One person responsible for popularizing the term libertarian in this sense was [[Murray Rothbard]], who started publishing libertarian works in the 1960s. Rothbard described this modern use of the words overtly as a \"capture\" from his enemies, writing that \"for the first time in my memory, we, our side, had captured a crucial word from the enemy. Libertarians had long been simply a polite word for left-wing anarchists, that is for anti-private property anarchists, either of the communist or syndicalist variety. But now we had taken it over\".", "In the 1970s, [[Robert Nozick]] was responsible for popularizing this usage of the term in academic and philosophical circles outside the United States, especially with the publication of [[Anarchy, State, and Utopia]] (1974), a response to [[social liberal]] [[John Rawls]]s [[A Theory of Justice]] (1971). In the book, Nozick proposed a [[minimal state]] on the grounds that it was an inevitable phenomenon which could arise without violating [[individual rights]].", "According to common meanings of [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] and [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]], [[libertarianism in the United States]] has been described as conservative on economic issues ([[economic liberalism]] and [[fiscal conservatism]]) and liberal on personal freedom ([[civil libertarianism]] and [[cultural liberalism]]). It is also often associated with a foreign policy of [[non-interventionism]]."], "Philosophy": ["All libertarians begin with a conception of [[Autonomy|personal autonomy]] from which they argue in favor of civil liberties and a reduction or elimination of the state. People described as being left-libertarian or right-libertarian generally tend to call themselves simply libertarians and refer to their philosophy as libertarianism. As a result, some political scientists and writers classify the forms of libertarianism into two or more groups to distinguish libertarian views on the nature of [[Right to property|property]] and [[Capital (economics)|capital]]. In the United States, proponents of [[free-market]] [[anti-capitalism]] consciously label themselves as left-libertarians and see themselves as being part of a broad libertarian left.", "[[Left-libertarianism]] encompasses those libertarian beliefs that claim the Earths natural resources belong to everyone in an egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively. Contemporary left-libertarians such as [[Hillel Steiner]], [[Peter Vallentyne]], [[Philippe Van Parijs]], [[Michael Otsuka]] and [[David Ellerman]] believe the appropriation of land must leave \"[[Lockean proviso|enough and as good]]\" for others or be taxed by society to compensate for the exclusionary effects of private property. [[Socialist libertarian]]s such as [[Social anarchism|social]] and [[individualist anarchist]]s, [[libertarian Marxist]]s, [[council communist]]s, [[Luxemburgist]]s and [[De Leonist]]s promote [[usufruct]] and [[socialist]] economic theories, including [[communism]], [[Collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[syndicalism]] and [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]. They criticize the state for being the defender of private property and believe capitalism entails [[wage slavery]].", "[[Right-libertarianism]] developed in the United States in the mid-20th century from the works of European writers like [[John Locke]], [[Friedrich Hayek]] and [[Ludwig Von Mises]] and is the most popular conception of [[libertarianism in the United States]] today. Commonly referred to as a continuation or radicalization of [[classical liberalism]], the most important of these early right-libertarian philosophers was [[Robert Nozick]]. While sharing left-libertarians advocacy for social freedom, right-libertarians value the [[Institution|social institutions]] that enforce conditions of capitalism while rejecting institutions that function in opposition to these on the grounds that such interventions represent unnecessary coercion of individuals and abrogation of their economic freedom. [[Anarcho-capitalist]]s seek the elimination of the state in favor of privately funded security services while minarchists defend [[night-watchman state]]s which maintain only those functions of government necessary to safeguard natural rights, understood in terms of self-ownership or autonomy.", "[[Libertarian paternalism]] is a position advocated in the international bestseller Nudge by two American scholars, namely the economist [[Richard Thaler]] and the jurist [[Cass Sunstein]]. In the book Thinking, Fast and Slow, [[Daniel Kahneman]] provides the brief summary: \"Thaler and Sunstein advocate a position of libertarian paternalism, in which the state and other institutions are allowed to Nudge people to make decisions that serve their own long-term interests. The designation of joining a pension plan as the default option is an example of a nudge. It is difficult to argue that anyones freedom is diminished by being automatically enrolled in the plan, when they merely have to check a box to opt out\". Nudge is considered an important piece of literature in [[behavioral economics]].", "[[Neo-libertarianism]] combines \"the libertarians moral commitment to [[negative liberty]] with a procedure that selects principles for restricting liberty on the basis of a unanimous agreement in which everyones particular interests receive a fair hearing\". Neo-libertarianism has its roots at least as far back as 1980, when it was first described by the American philosopher James Sterba of the [[University of Notre Dame]]. Sterba observed that libertarianism advocates for a government that does no more than protection against force, fraud, theft, enforcement of contracts and other [[negative liberties]] as contrasted with [[positive liberties]] by [[Isaiah Berlin]]. Sterba contrasted this with the older libertarian ideal of a night watchman state, or minarchism. Sterba held that it is \"obviously impossible for everyone in society to be guaranteed complete liberty as defined by this ideal: after all, peoples actual wants as well as their conceivable wants can come into serious conflict. [...] [I]t is also impossible for everyone in society to be completely free from the interference of other persons\". In 2013, Sterna wrote that \"I shall show that moral commitment to an ideal of negative liberty, which does not lead to a night-watchman state, but instead requires sufficient government to provide each person in society with the relatively high minimum of liberty that persons using [[John Rawls|Rawls]] [[Original position|decision procedure]] would select. The political program actually justified by an ideal of negative liberty I shall call Neo-Libertarianism\"."], "Typology": ["In the United States, libertarian is a typology used to describe a political position that advocates [[small government]] and is [[culturally liberal]] and [[fiscally conservative]] in a two-dimensional political spectrum such as the libertarian-inspired [[Nolan Chart]], where the other major typologies are [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]], [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]] and [[populist]]. Libertarians support legalization of victimless crimes such as the use of marijuana while opposing high levels of taxation and government spending on health, welfare and education. Libertarian was adopted in the United States, where liberal had become associated with a version that supports extensive government spending on social policies. Libertarian may also refers to an [[anarchist]] ideology that developed in the 19th century and to a liberal version which developed in the United States that is avowedly pro-[[capitalist]].", "According to polls, approximately one in four Americans self-identify as libertarian. While this group is not typically ideologically driven, the term libertarian is commonly used to describe the form of libertarianism widely practiced in the United States and is the common meaning of the word libertarianism in the United States. This form is often named [[liberalism]] elsewhere such as in Europe, where liberalism has a different common meaning than in the United States. In some academic circles, this form is called [[right-libertarianism]] as a complement to [[left-libertarianism]], with acceptance of capitalism or the private ownership of land as being the distinguishing feature."]}, "first_par": ["Libertarianism (from, \"libertarian\"; from, \"freedom\") is a [[political philosophy]] and [[Political movement|movement]] that upholds [[liberty]] as a core principle. Libertarians seek to maximize [[autonomy]] and [[political freedom]], emphasizing [[Free association (Marxism and anarchism)|free association]], [[freedom of choice]], [[individualism]] and [[voluntary association]]. Libertarians share a skepticism of [[Political authority|authority]] and [[State (polity)|state]] power, but some of them diverge on the scope of their opposition to existing [[Economic system|economic]] and [[political system]]s. Various schools of libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the legitimate functions of state and private [[Power (social and political)|power]], often calling for the restriction or dissolution of coercive [[social institutions]]. Different categorizations have been used to distinguish various forms of libertarianism. Scholars distinguish libertarian views on the nature of [[Property rights (economics)|property]] and [[Capital (economics)|capital]], usually along left\u2013right or socialist\u2013capitalist lines.", "Libertarianism originated as a form of [[left-wing politics]] such as [[anti-authoritarian]] and [[anti-state]] [[socialists]] like [[anarchists]], especially [[social anarchists]], but more generally [[libertarian communists]]/[[Libertarian Marxism|Marxists]] and [[libertarian socialists]]. These libertarians seek to [[abolish capitalism]] and [[private ownership]] of the [[means of production]], or else to restrict their purview or effects to [[usufruct]] property norms, in favor of [[Common ownership|common]] or [[Worker cooperative|cooperative ownership]] and [[Workers self-management|management]], viewing private property as a barrier to freedom and liberty.", "[[Left-libertarian]] ideologies include [[anarchist schools of thought]], alongside many other anti-paternalist and [[New Left]] [[schools of thought]] centered around [[economic egalitarianism]] as well as [[geolibertarianism]], [[green politics]], [[market-oriented left-libertarianism]] and the [[Steiner\u2013Vallentyne school]]. In the mid-20th century, [[right-libertarian]] proponents of [[anarcho-capitalism]] and [[minarchism]] co-opted the term libertarian to advocate [[laissez-faire]] [[capitalism]] and strong [[private property rights]] such as in land, infrastructure and natural resources. The latter is the dominant form of [[libertarianism in the United States]], where it advocates [[civil liberties]], [[natural law]], [[free-market capitalism]] and a major reversal of the modern [[welfare state]]."]}, "main_pages": {}}, "Anarchism": {"page_content": {"Criticism": ["The most common critique of anarchism is that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] supported this critique, stating that \"[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government.\" Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing. [[Colin Ward]] responds that major anarchist thinkers advocated [[Anarchist federalism|federalism]].", "Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala also believed that humans could not self-govern and included it in his list of arguments against anarchism. Fialas other critiques were that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, i.e. at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state can not be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory. While it advocates for no-one to archiei, if accepted by the many, then anarchism would turn into the ruling political theory. In this line of criticism also comes the self-contradiction that anarchism calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong.", "Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as [[A. John Simmons]] Moral Principles and Political Obligations. Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay arguing against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson claims that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate. In The Problem of Political Authority, [[Michael Huemer]] defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that \"political authority is a moral illusion.\"", "Another criticism is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority as first articulated in an 1886 article for the [[North American Review]] by Frances L. Ferguson. [[Joseph Raz]] argues that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success. Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities successful and mistaken instruction. Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment. Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic and unrealistic, respectively. Classical anarchism has been criticized for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering. ", "[[Friedrich Engels]], considered to be one of the principal founders of [[Marxism]], criticized anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary. Academic [[John Molyneux (academic)|John Molyneux]] writes in his book Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism that \"anarchism cannot win\", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas. The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists argue that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining."], "Etymology, terminology and definition": ["The etymological origin of anarchism is from the Ancient Greek anarkhia, meaning \"without a ruler\", composed of the prefix an- (i.e. \"without\") and the word arkhos (i.e. \"leader\" or \"ruler\"). The suffix [[-ism]] denotes the ideological current that favours [[anarchy]]. Anarchism appears in English from 1642 as anarchisme and anarchy from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder. Various factions within the [[French Revolution]] labelled their opponents as anarchists, although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as [[William Godwin]] (1756\u20131836) and [[Wilhelm Weitling]] (1808\u20131871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation, but they did not use anarchist or anarchism in describing themselves or their beliefs.", "The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (1809\u20131865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France, [[libertarianism]] has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. On the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to [[individualistic]] [[free-market]] philosophy only, referring to [[free-market anarchism]] as libertarian anarchism.", "While [[opposition to the state]] is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Hence, it might be true to say that anarchism is a cluster of political philosophies opposing [[authority]] and [[hierarchical organisation]] (including [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]], [[Anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]], the [[State (polity)|state]] and all associated [[institution]]s) in the conduct of all [[human relations]] in favour of a society based on [[decentralisation]], [[freedom]] and [[voluntary association]]. However, this definition has the same shortcomings as the definition based on anti-authoritarianism (which is an [[a posteriori]] conclusion), anti-statism (anarchism is much more than that) and etymology (which is simply a negation of a ruler). Nonetheless, major elements of the definition of anarchism include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy.", "[[Herbert L. Osgood]] claimed that anarchism is \"the extreme antithesis\" of [[authoritarian communism]] and [[state socialism]]. [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]] states that \"[i]n general anarchism is closer to socialism than liberalism. [...] Anarchism finds itself largely in the socialist camp, but it also has outriders in liberalism. It cannot be reduced to socialism, and is best seen as a separate and distinctive doctrine.\" According to [[Jeremy Jennings]], \"[i]t is hard not to conclude that these ideas\", referring to [[anarcho-capitalism]], \"are described as anarchist only on the basis of a misunderstanding of what anarchism is.\" Jennings adds that \"anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the anarcho-capitalists appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community.\" [[Nicolas Walter]] wrote that \"anarchism does derive from liberalism and socialism both historically and ideologically. [...] In a sense, anarchists always remain liberals and socialists, and whenever they reject what is good in either they betray anarchism itself. [...] We are liberals but more so, and socialists but more so.\" Michael Newman includes anarchism as one of many [[socialist traditions]], especially the more socialist-aligned tradition following Proudhon and [[Mikhail Bakunin]]. [[Brian Morris (anthropologist)|Brian Morriss]] argues that it is \"conceptually and historically misleading\" to \"create a dichotomy between socialism and anarchism.\""], "History": {"Modern era": ["During the [[French Revolution]], partisan groups such as the [[Enrag\u00e9s]] and the saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as [[William Godwin]] espoused [[philosophical anarchism]] in England, morally delegitimising the state, [[Max Stirner]]s thinking paved the way to [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]] and [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]s theory of [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] found fertile soil in France. By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then unprecedented [[globalization]] occurred from 1880 to 1914. This era of [[classical anarchism]] lasted until the end of the [[Spanish Civil War]] and is considered the golden age of anarchism.", "Drawing from mutualism, [[Mikhail Bakunin]] founded [[collectivist anarchism]] and entered the [[International Workingmens Association]], a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with [[Karl Marx]] being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunins faction (the [[Jura Federation]]) and Proudhons followers (the mutualists) opposed [[state socialism]], advocating political [[abstentionism]] and small property holdings. After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the [[Marxists]] at the [[1872 Hague Congress]]. Anarchists were treated similarly in the [[Second International]], being ultimately expelled in 1896. Bakunin famously predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marxs terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers. In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed the [[St. Imier International]]. Under the influence of [[Peter Kropotkin]], a Russian philosopher and scientist, [[anarcho-communism]] overlapped with collectivism. Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 [[Paris Commune]], advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to ones needs.", "At the turn of the century, anarchism had spread all over the world. It was a notable feature of the international syndicalism movement. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from countries of the far east, travelling to the Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, [[Anarchism in Argentina|Argentina]] was a stronghold for [[anarcho-syndicalism]], where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology. During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary [[political violence]]. This strategy became known as [[propaganda of the deed]]. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many [[Communards]] to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to exclude them from American immigration, including the [[Immigration Act of 1903]], also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act. [[Illegalism]] was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period.", "Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the [[Russian Revolution]] in opposition to the [[White movement]]. However, they met harsh suppression after the [[Bolshevik government]] was stabilized. Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, notably leading to the [[Kronstadt rebellion]] and [[Nestor Makhno]]s struggle in the [[Free Territory]]. With the anarchists being crushed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely [[platformism]] and [[synthesis anarchism]]. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories of the [[Bolsheviks]] in the [[October Revolution]] and the resulting [[Russian Civil War]], many workers and activists turned to [[communist parties]] which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as the [[General Confederation of Labour (France)|General Confederation of Labour]] and the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] left their organisations and joined the [[Communist International]].", "In the Spanish Civil War of 1936, anarchists and syndicalists ([[Confederaci\u00f3n Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and [[Federaci\u00f3n Anarquista Ib\u00e9rica|FAI]]) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of [[Spanish anarchism]] led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they [[collectivised]] the land. The [[Soviet Union]] provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight among communists and anarchists at a series of events named [[May Days]] as [[Joseph Stalin]] tried to seize control of the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republicans]]."], "Post-war era": ["At the end of [[World War II]], the anarchist movement was severely weakened. However, the 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of [[Marxism\u2013Leninism]] and tensions built by the [[Cold War]]. During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as the [[Anti-nuclear movement|anti-nuclear]], [[Environmental movement|environmental]] and [[peace movement]]s, the [[counterculture of the 1960s]] and the [[New Left]]. It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative [[anti-capitalist reform]]ism. Anarchism became associated with [[punk subculture]] as exemplified by bands such as [[Crass]] and the [[Sex Pistols]]. The established [[feminist]] tendencies of [[anarcha-feminism]] returned with vigour during the [[second wave of feminism]]. [[Black anarchism]] began to take form at this time and influenced anarchisms move from a [[Eurocentric]] demographic. This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America.", "Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within [[anti-capitalist]], [[anti-war]] and [[anti-globalisation]] movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), the [[Group of Eight]] and the [[World Economic Forum]]. During the protests, ad hoc leaderless anonymous cadres known as [[black bloc]]s engaged in [[riot]]ing, [[property destruction]] and violent confrontations with the [[police]]. Other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include [[affinity group]]s, [[security culture]] and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the [[1999 Seattle WTO conference]]. Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatistas]] in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as [[Rojava]], a de facto [[Permanent autonomous zone|autonomous region]] in northern Syria."], "Pre-modern era": ["During the prehistoric era of mankind, an established authority did not exist. It was after the creation of towns and cities that institutions of authority were established and anarchistic ideas espoused as a reaction. The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, [[philosophical anarchism]] (i.e. the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by [[Taoist]] philosophers [[Zhuang Zhou]] and [[Laozi]]. Alongside [[Stoicism]], Taoism has been said to have had \"significant anticipations\" of anarchism.", "Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. [[Aeschylus]] and [[Sophocles]] used the myth of [[Antigone]] to illustrate the conflict between rules set by the state and personal [[autonomy]]. [[Socrates]] questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]] dismissed human law ([[Nomos (sociology)|nomos]]) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature ([[physis]]). [[Stoics]] were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state.", "During the [[Middle Ages]], there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements in the [[Muslim world]] or in Christian Europe. This kind of tradition later gave birth to [[religious anarchism]]. In the [[Sasanian Empire]], [[Mazdak]] called for an [[egalitarian]] society and the [[abolition of monarchy]], only to be soon executed by Emperor [[Kavad I]].", "In [[Basra]], religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Libertarian ideas further emerged during the [[Renaissance]] with the spread of [[humanism]], [[rationalism]] and [[reason]]ing through Europe. Novelists fictionalised ideal societies that were based on voluntarism rather than coercion. The [[Age of Enlightenment]] further pushed towards anarchism with the optimism for social progress."]}, "Key issues": {"Anarchism and education": ["The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of [[Mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]]. Anarchist writers such as [[William Godwin]] ([[Political Justice]]) and [[Max Stirner]] (\"[[The False Principle of Our Education]]\") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges.", "In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker [[Francisco Ferrer]] established the [[Escuela Moderna]] in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church. Ferrers approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster [[class consciousness]] among students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of [[Modern School (United States)|modern schools]] around the world. Christian anarchist [[Leo Tolstoy]], who published the essay Education and Culture, also established a similar school with its founding principle being that \"for education to be effective it had to be free.\" In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the [[Summerhill School]] in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion.", "Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a childs right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality will lead children to morally good conclusions. However, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism.", "Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers ([[Colin Ward]], [[Herbert Read]] and [[Paul Goodman]]) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on childrens creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in [[consumerism]] as part of a consumer society. Contemporary anarchists such as Ward have further argued that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.", "While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England and the Paideia School in Spain."], "Anarchism and the arts": ["The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others. In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the [[New Apocalyptics]] and the [[neo-romanticism]] movement. In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk. Anarchists such as [[Leo Tolstoy]] and [[Herbert Read]] argued that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life.", "Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends. In his book Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas, Chris Rob\u00e9 claims that \"anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism.\" Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists ([[Peter Kropotkin]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Gustav Landauer]] and [[Camillo Berneri]]) and publications such as [[Anarchy (magazine)|Anarchy]] wrote about matters pertaining to the arts.", "Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect. The 19th-century [[neo-impressionist]] movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism. In Les chataigniers a Osny by anarchist painter [[Camille Pissarro]], the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community."], "Anarchism and the state": ["Objection to the [[State (polity)|state]] and its institutions is a [[sine qua non]] of anarchism. Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is [[Open government|open]] or [[Transparency (behavior)|transparent]], as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the [[ruling class]] is distinct from the rest of society.", "Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. [[Robert Paul Wolff]] believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning \"coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be.\" [[A. John Simmons]] and [[Leslie Green (philosopher)|Leslie Green]], who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely. Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ."], "Gender, sexuality and free love": ["As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, anarchism is obliged to address, analyse and oppose the suppression of ones autonomy because of the dynamics that gender roles traditionally impose.", "Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists, but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing. However, sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as [[Benjamin Tucker]], who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men. A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was [[free love]]. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support [[polyamory]] and [[queer anarchism]]. Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited womens sexual freedom and pleasure. Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together. Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States. However, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love. Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term) and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on [[suffrage]], but they were nonetheless supportive of one another.", "During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the [[second wave of feminism]], radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents. With the [[third wave of feminism]], sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a [[post-structuralist]] critique of sexual normality. However, some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation."], "first_par": ["As anarchism is a [[philosophy]] that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of [[definitional concerns in anarchist theory]]. The compatibility of [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]], [[Anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]] and [[Anarchism and religion|religion]] with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as [[Anarchism and communism|communism]], [[collectivism]], [[Anarchism and Marxism|Marxism]] and [[trade unionism]]. Anarchists may be motivated by [[humanism]], [[God|divine authority]], [[enlightened self-interest]], [[Veganarchism|veganism]], or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as [[civilisation]], [[technology]] (e.g. within [[anarcho-primitivism]]) and the [[Anarchism and statist democracy|democratic process]] may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others."]}, "Tactics": {"Classical era tactics": ["During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed [[terrorism]] as [[propaganda of the deed]]. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in [[revolution]]s. Many anarchists, especially the [[Galleanists]], believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state. Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s. Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further [[judicial]] power and targeting and cataloging by state institutions.", "Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been perplexing and controversial. On one hand, [[anarcho-pacifists]] point out the unity of means and ends. On the other hand, other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of [[sabotage]] or even acts of terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a [[tyrant]] and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its [[oppression]] by any means possible. [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Errico Malatesta]], who were proponents of limited use of violence, argued that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a [[necessary evil]].", "Anarchists took an active role in [[strike action]]s, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal [[syndicalism]], seeing it as [[Reformism|reformist]]. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the [[State (polity)|state]] and [[capitalism]]. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced [[naturism]] and [[nudism]]. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on [[friendship]] and were involved in the [[news media]]."], "Evolutionary tactics": ["Anarchists commonly employ [[direct action]]. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust [[hierarchy]], or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as [[horizontalism]]. Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various [[grassroots]] movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the big-A anarchism of the classical era, the newly coined term small-a anarchism signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to [[classical anarchists]] such as [[Peter Kropotkin]] and [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize.", "The decision-making process of small anarchist [[affinity group]]s plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5\u201320 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especially [[Wildcat strike action|wildcat strikes]] as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate.", "As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, but anarchists have gone [[online]] in the [[World Wide Web]] to spread their message. However, anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals. Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users privacy from state surveillance.", "Anarchists organize themselves to [[Squatting|squat]] and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called [[Temporary Autonomous Zone]]s (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry and [[surrealism]] are blended to display the anarchist ideal. As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action. Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds. Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a [[carnivalesque]] atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity."], "Revolutionary tactics": ["In the current era, Italian anarchist [[Alfredo Bonanno]], a proponent of [[insurrectionary anarchism]], has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group [[The Invisible Committee]] advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression utilizing sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included.", "Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as [[Anarchism in Canada|Canada]], [[Anarchism in Greece|Greece]] and [[Anarchism in Mexico|Mexico]]. Militant [[black bloc]] protest groups are known for clashing with the police. However, anarchists not only clash with state operators; they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, taking [[anti-fascist action]] and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening."], "first_par": ["Anarchists tactics take various forms, but in general, they serve two major goals, namely to first oppose [[the Establishment]] and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends. A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other. Evolutionary tactics embrace [[nonviolence]], reject violence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two.", "Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches."]}, "Thought": {"Classical": ["Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] and [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]]. They were followed by the major currents of [[social anarchism]] ([[Collectivist anarchism|collectivist]], [[Anarcho-communism|communist]] and [[Anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalist]]). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society.", "Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]. Its aims include [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]], [[Free association (Marxism and anarchism)|free association]], voluntary [[contract]], [[federation]] and [[monetary reform]] of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people. Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. In [[What Is Property?]] (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a \"third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property.\" Collectivist anarchism is a [[revolutionary socialist]] form of anarchism commonly associated with [[Mikhail Bakunin]]. Collectivist anarchists advocate [[collective ownership]] of the [[means of production]] which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside [[Marxism]], but it rejected the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist [[stateless society]].", "[[Anarcho-communism]] is a theory of anarchism that advocates a [[communist society]] with [[common ownership]] of the means of production, [[direct democracy]] and a [[Horizontalidad|horizontal]] network of [[voluntary association]]s, [[workers council]]s and [[worker cooperative]]s, with production and consumption based on the guiding principle \"[[From each according to his ability, to each according to his need]].\" Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the [[French Revolution]], but it was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the [[First International]]. It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of [[Peter Kropotkin]], whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views [[labour syndicate]]s as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are [[direct action]], workers [[solidarity]] and [[workers self-management]].", "Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the [[individual]] and their [[Will (philosophy)|will]] over any kinds of external determinants. Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include [[William Godwin]], [[Max Stirner]] and [[Henry David Thoreau]]. Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as [[illegalism]] and [[individual reclamation]]."], "Post-classical and contemporary": ["Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the [[anti-globalisation movement]], whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and [[syncretic]], combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches. The [[anti-capitalist]] tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents.", "Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes [[black bloc]] demonstrations has reinforced anarchisms historical association with chaos and violence. However, its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as [[anthropology]] and [[history]] to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory. Various anarchist groups, tendencies and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement. While theorists and activists have established \"relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles\", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple \"anarchisms\" (rather than a singular \"anarchism\") in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to [[anarcha-feminists]] than [[anarcho-communists]].", "Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely \"all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism.\" However, anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed. The principle of [[equal liberty]] is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy."], "first_par": ["Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, [[social anarchism]] and [[individualist anarchism]], owing to their different origins, values and evolution. The individualist current emphasises [[negative liberty]] in opposing restraints upon the free individual while the social current emphasises [[positive liberty]] in aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality and [[social ownership]]. In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents ([[anarcha-feminism]], [[green anarchism]] and [[post-anarchism]]) developed thereafter.", "Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies [[philosophical anarchism]] which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a [[minimal state]], but it argues that citizens have no [[moral obligation]] to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy. Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since [[ethics]] have a central role in anarchist philosophy. Anarchisms emphasis on [[anti-capitalism]], [[egalitarianism]] and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from [[anarcho-capitalism]] and other types of [[economic libertarian]]ism.", "Anarchism is usually placed on the [[far-left]] of the [[political spectrum]]. Much of its [[Anarchist economics|economics]] and [[Anarchist law|legal philosophy]] reflect [[anti-authoritarian]], [[anti-statist]], [[libertarian]] and [[Radical politics|radical]] interpretations of [[left-wing]] and [[socialist]] politics such as [[Collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[Anarcho-communism|communism]], [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]], [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] and [[Anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalism]], among other [[libertarian socialist]] economic theories. As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview, many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely. One reaction against [[sectarianism]] within the anarchist milieu was [[anarchism without adjectives]], a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by [[Fernando Tarrida del M\u00e1rmol]] in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. Belief in political [[nihilism]] has been espoused by anarchists. Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities, but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of uniform principles such as individual and local autonomy, mutual aid, network organisation, communal democracy, justified authority and decentralisation."]}, "first_par": ["Anarchism is a [[political philosophy]] and [[Political movement|movement]] that is sceptical of [[authority]] and rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of [[hierarchy]]. Anarchism calls for the abolition of the [[State (polity)|state]], which it holds to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. It is usually described alongside [[libertarian Marxism]] as the [[libertarian]] wing ([[libertarian socialism]]) of the [[socialist movement]] and as having a historical association with [[anti-capitalism]] and [[socialism]].", "The [[History of anarchism|history of anarchy]] goes back to [[prehistory]], when humans arguably lived in anarchic societies long before the establishment of formal states, [[realm]]s or [[empire]]s. With the rise of organised hierarchical bodies, [[scepticism]] toward authority also rose, but it was not until the 19th century that a self-conscious political movement emerged. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers struggles for [[emancipation]]. Various [[anarchist schools of thought]] formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the [[Spanish Civil War]], whose end marked the end of the [[classical era of anarchism]]. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more.", "Anarchism employs a [[diversity of tactics]] in order to meet its ideal ends which can be broadly separated into revolutionary and evolutionary tactics. There is significant overlap between the two which are merely descriptive. Revolutionary tactics aim to bring down authority and state, having taken a violent turn in the past. Evolutionary tactics aim to prefigure what an anarchist society would be like. Anarchist thought, criticism and [[Praxis (process)|praxis]] have played a part in diverse areas of human society. Criticisms of anarchism include claims that it is internally inconsistent, violent, or utopian."]}, "main_pages": {}}, "Autocracy": {"page_content": {"Autocracy promotion": ["It has been argued that [[authoritarian]] regimes such as [[China]] and [[Russia]] and totalitarian states such as [[North Korea]] have attempted to export their system of government to other countries through \"autocracy promotion\". A number of scholars are skeptical that China and Russia have successfully exported authoritarianism abroad."], "Comparison with other forms of government": ["Both [[totalitarian]] and [[military dictatorship]] are often identified with, but need not be, an autocracy. Totalitarianism is a system where the state strives to control every aspect of life and civil society. It can be headed by a supreme leader, making it autocratic, but it can also have a [[collective leadership]] such as a [[commune]], [[military junta]], or a single [[political party]] as in the case of a [[one-party state]]."], "Historical examples": ["* The [[Roman Empire]], which [[Augustus]] founded following the end of the [[Roman Republic]] in 27 BC. Augustus officially kept the [[Roman Senate]] while effectively consolidating all of the real power in himself. Rome was generally peaceful and prosperous until the imperial rule of [[Commodus]] starting in 180 AD. The [[crisis of the Third Century]] saw the [[barbarian invasions]] and insurrections by prominent generals as well as economic decline. Both [[Diocletian]] and [[Constantine the Great]] ruled as autocratic leaders, strengthening the control of the emperor in a phase known as [[Dominate]]. The empire grew extremely large and was ruled by a [[tetrarchy]], instituted by Diocletian. Eventually, it was split into two halves, namely the [[Western Empire|Western]] and the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern]]. The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 after civic unrest, further economic decline and invasions led to the surrender of [[Romulus Augustus]] to [[Odoacer]], a Germanic king. On the other hand, the Eastern Roman Empire survived until 1453, with the [[Fall of Constantinople]]. Its rulers main titles in Greek were Autocrator and Basileus.", "* The [[Eastern Han]] [[Dynasties in Chinese history|dynasty of China]] under [[Dong Zhuo]].", "* The [[Aztec Empire]], where the Mesoamerican [[Aztec]]s were a tremendous military powerhouse that earned a fearsome reputation of capturing prisoners during battle to be used for sacrificial rituals. The priesthood supported a pantheon that demanded human sacrifice and the nobility consisted mainly of warriors who had captured many prisoners for these sacrificial rites. The Aztec Emperor hence functioned both as the sole ruler of the empire and its military forces and as the religious figurehead behind the empires aggressive foreign policy.", "* [[Tsardom of Russia|Tsarist]] and [[Imperial Russia]] under [[Tsar]] [[Ivan the Terrible]]. Shortly after being crowned as ruler, Ivan IV immediately removed his political enemies by execution or exile and established dominance over the Russian empire, expanding the borders of his kingdom dramatically. To enforce his rule, Ivan established the [[Streltzy]] as Russias standing army and developed two cavalry divisions that were fiercely loyal to the Tsar. He also established the [[Cossacks]] and the [[Oprichniki]]. In his later years, Ivan made orders for his forces to sack the city of [[Novgorod]] in fear of being overthrown. The ideology [[Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationality]] was introduced by Emperor [[Nicholas I of Russia]].", "* The [[Tokugawa shogunate]], a period of [[History of Japan|Japanese history]] which followed a [[Sengoku Jidai|series of conflicts]] between warring clans, states, and rulers. [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] seized control of all of Japan through a mix of superior tactics and diplomacy, until he became the undisputed [[shogun]] (military ruler of Japan). The shogunate established by Tokugawa and continued by his successors controlled all aspects of life, closing the borders of Japan to all foreign nations and ruling with a policy of isolationism known as [[sakoku]].", "* [[Sweden]] during the reigns of [[Gustav I of Sweden|Gustav I]] (1523\u20131560), [[Charles XI of Sweden|Charles XI]] and [[Charles XII of Sweden|Charles XII]] (1680\u20131718), and [[Gustav III]] and [[Gustav IV Adolf]] ([[Gustavian era|1772\u20131809]]).", "* [[Denmark\u2013Norway]] under the [[Absolute monarchy#Denmark\u2013Norway|House of Oldenburg]].", "* The [[First French Republic|French Republic]] and the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] from 1799 to 1814 under [[Napoleon Bonaparte]].", "* The [[President of the United States]] has been regarded as an autocratic ruler over [[Tribal sovereignty in the United States|sovereign Native American nations]], in his role as chief executive of the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]] and its [[Bureau of Indian Affairs|Office of Indian Affairs]], which oversaw relations between the U.S. and Native American nations. The U.S. government imposed complete control over the [[Native Americans in the United States|citizens of Native nations]] whose nations had [[Native American treaties|entered into treaties]] with the U.S. This was especially true in the second half of the 19th century when U.S. policy was to acquire territory from Native nations and then remove that nations population to the [[Indian Territory]] and confine them there. The confined population retained the citizenship of their Native nation and were not eligible for American citizenship because they were considered \"Indians not taxed\" under [[Article One of the United States Constitution]]. Unable to acquire U.S. citizenship, this meant that the confined population had no civil rights because they were not recognized as \"persons\" under American law. This deprived them of all means of legal redress to challenge the autocratic rule of the U.S. government imposed over every aspect of their lives. Native Americans were specifically excluded from the grant of universal citizenship following the abolition of slavery under the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] in 1868. It was not until 1879 that the first Native American was recognized as a \"person\" in the landmark civil rights case [[Standing Bear v. Crook]]. In the Standing Bear case, 29 citizens of the [[Ponca Nation]] led by Standing Bear were required to renounce their Ponca citizenship just to acquire the basic constitutional right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness following the illegal forced removal of the Ponca to the Indian Territory in 1877 by the U.S. government in violation of the Ponca Treaty of 1865. Public opinion following the Standing Bear case led to a push for Native American citizenship with many major U.S. newspapers criticizing the U.S. autocracy. In 1880, the [[New York Tribune]] editorialized: \"So long as the Indians remain without the protection of the law, we give the lie to our claim to be a republic as much as we did when we permitted slavery. So far as they are concerned, our government is as autocratic today as that of Russia or Persia.\" Native Americans were not granted universal American citizenship for another 45 years when the [[Indian Citizenship Act]] was enacted in 1924. Still, autocratic rule continued. In 1934, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] recognized his governments autocratic rule over Native Americans, saying the \"continuance of autocratic rule by a federal department over the lives of more than 200,000 citizens of this nation is incompatible with American ideals of liberty\". Despite Roosevelts [[Indian Reorganization Act]], autocratic rule continued until the [[Native American policy of the Richard Nixon administration|administration of Richard Nixon]] and the enactment of the [[Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975]].", "* The [[Soviet Union]] under the rule of [[Joseph Stalin]] in addition to other Soviet dictators. The Soviet Union was founded in 1922 following the [[Russian Civil War]] (1917\u20131922), and several of [[List of leaders of the Soviet Union|its leaders]] have been considered autocratic. [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|Political repression]] occurred in the Soviet Union until [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|its dissolution]] in 1991.", "* [[Fascist Italy (1922\u20131943)|Fascist Italy]] under [[Benito Mussolini]]s rule starting from 1925.", "* [[Empire of Japan]] under [[Hirohito]] and [[Hideki Tojo]] with [[Imperial Rule Assistance Association]].", "* [[Nazi Germany]] ruled by [[Adolf Hitler]]. After the failed [[Beer Hall Putsch]], the [[Nazi Party]] began a more subtle political strategy to take over the government. Following a tense social and political environment in the 1930s, the Nazis under Hitler took advantage of the civil unrest of the state to seize power through cunning propaganda and by the charismatic speeches of their party leader. By the time Hitler was appointed [[Chancellor of Germany]], the Nazi Party began to restrict civil liberties on the public following the [[Reichstag Fire]]. With a combination of cooperation and intimidation, Hitler and his party systematically weakened all opposition to his rule, [[Machtergreifung|transforming]] the [[Weimar Republic]] into a dictatorship where Hitler alone spoke and acted on behalf of Germany. Nazi Germany is an example of an autocracy run primarily by a single leader and his party.", "* [[Spanish State]], ruled by [[Francisco Franco]].", "* The [[Hungarian Peoples Republic]] as a member of the Soviet-aligned [[Eastern Bloc]].", "* [[Greek junta|Greece]] under the [[military junta]] of [[Georgios Papadopoulos]] (1967-1974). ", "*[[Paraguay]] under the [[El Stronato|government]] of [[Alfredo Stroessner]].", "* [[Chile]] under the [[Military dictatorship of Chile (1973\u20131990)|dictatorship]] of [[Pinochet]].", "*[[Cuba]] under the dictatorships of [[Fulgencio Batista]] and [[Fidel Castro]].", "*Venezuela under the dictatorships of [[Hugo Chavez]] and [[Nicolas Maduro]]."], "History and etymology": ["Autocracy comes from the [[Ancient Greek]] autos (Greek: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B1%E1%BD%90%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%82#Ancient_Greek \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2]; \"self\") and kratos (Greek: [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82 \u03ba\u03c1\u03ac\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2]; \"power\", \"strength\") from [[Kratos (mythology)|Kratos]], the Greek personification of authority. In [[Medieval Greek]], the term Autocrates was used for anyone holding the title emperor, regardless of the actual power of the [[monarch]]. Some historical Slavic monarchs such as [[List of Russian rulers|Russian tsars and emperors]] included the title Autocrat as part of their official styles, distinguishing them from the [[constitutional monarchs]] elsewhere in Europe."], "Maintenance": ["Because autocrats need a power structure to rule, it can be difficult to draw a clear line between historical autocracies and [[oligarchies]]. Most historical autocrats depended on their [[nobles]], the [[military]], the [[priest]]hood, or other [[elite]] groups. Some autocracies are rationalized by assertion of [[Divine right of kings|divine right]]; historically this has mainly been reserved for medieval kingdoms. In recent years researchers have found significant connections between the types of rules governing succession in monarchies and autocracies and the frequency with which coups or succession crises occur.", "According to [[Douglass North]], John Joseph Wallis and [[Barry R. Weingast]], in limited access orders the state is ruled by a dominant coalition formed by a small elite group that relates to each other by personal relationships. In order to remain in power, this elite hinders people outside the dominant coalition to access organizations and resources. Autocracy is maintained as long as the personal relationships of the elite continue to forge the dominant coalition. These scholars further suggest that once the dominant coalition starts to become broader and allow for impersonal relationships, limited access orders can give place to open access orders.", "For [[Daron Acemoglu]], [[Simon Johnson (economist)|Simon Johnson]] and [[James A. Robinson (economist)|James Robinson]], the allocation of political power explains the maintenance of autocracies which they usually refer to as \"extractive states\". For them, the [[de jure]] political power comes from political institutions, whereas the [[de facto]] political power is determined by the distribution of resources. Those holding the political power in the present will design the political and economic institutions in the future according to their interests. In autocracies, both de jure and de facto political powers are concentrated in one person or a small elite that will promote institutions for keeping the de jure political power as concentrated as the de facto political power, thereby maintaining autocratic regimes with extractive institutions."], "Origin and developments": ["Examples from early modern Europe suggests early statehood was favorable for democracy. According to Jacob Hariri, outside Europe, history shows that early statehood has led to autocracy. The reasons he gives are continuation of the original autocratic rule and absence of \"institutional transplantation\" or European settlement. This may be because of the countrys capacity to fight colonization, or the presence of state infrastructure that Europeans did not need for the creation of new institutions to rule. In all the cases, representative institutions were unable to get introduced in these countries and they sustained their autocratic rule. European colonization was varied and conditional on many factors. Countries which were rich in natural resources had an extractive<sup>[?]</sup> and indirect rule whereas other colonies saw European settlement. Because of this settlement, these countries possibly experienced setting up of new institutions. Colonization also depended on factor endowments and settler mortality.", "[[Mancur Olson]] theorizes the development of autocracies as the first transition from [[anarchy]] to [[State (polity)|state]]. For Olson, anarchy is characterized by a number of \"roving bandits\" who travel around many different geographic areas extorting wealth from local populations leaving little incentive for populations to invest and produce. As local populations lose the incentive to produce, there is little wealth for either the bandits to steal or the people to use. Olson theorizes autocrats as \"stationary bandits\" who solve this dilemma by establishing control over a small fiefdom and monopolize the extortion of wealth in the fiefdom in the form of taxes. Once an autocracy is developed, Olson theorizes that both the autocrat and the local population will be better off as the autocrat will have an \"encompassing interest\" in the maintenance and growth of wealth in the fiefdom. Because violence threatens the creation of rents, the \"stationary bandit\" has incentives to monopolize violence and to create a peaceful order. [[Peter Kurrild-Klitgaard]] and G.T. Svendsen have argued that the Viking expansion and settlements in the 9th-11th centuries may be interpreted as an example of riving bandits becoming stationary.", "[[Douglass North]], John Joseph Wallis and [[Barry R. Weingast]] describe autocracies as limited access orders that arise from this need to monopolize violence. In contrast to Olson, these scholars understand the early state not as a single ruler, but as an organization formed by many actors. They describe the process of autocratic state formation as a bargaining process among individuals with access to violence. For them, these individuals form a dominant coalition that grants each other privileges such as the access to resources. As violence reduces the rents, members of the dominant coalition have incentives to cooperate and to avoid fighting. A limited access to privileges is necessary to avoid competition among the members of the dominant coalition, who then will credibly commit to cooperate and will form the state."], "first_par": ["Autocracy is a [[system of government]] in which supreme power over a [[State (polity)|state]] is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for the implicit threat of [[coup d\u00e9tat]] or other forms of [[rebellion]]).", "In earlier times, the term autocrat was coined as a favorable description of a ruler, having some connection to the concept of \"lack of conflicts of interests\" as well as an indication of grandeur and power. This use of the term continued into modern times, as the [[Emperor of All Russia|Russian Emperor]] was styled \"Autocrat of all the Russias\" as late as the early [[20th century]].", "In the 19th century, Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse peoples."]}, "main_pages": {}}, "Oligarchy": {"page_content": {"Cases perceived as oligarchies": {"Russian Federation": ["Since [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|the collapse of the Soviet Union]] and [[privatization]] of the economy in December 1991, privately owned Russia-based multinational corporations, including producers of petroleum, natural gas, and metal have, in the view of many analysts, led to the rise of [[Russian oligarch]]s. Most of these are connected directly to the highest-ranked government officials, such as [[Presidents of the Russian Federation|President]]."], "Ukraine": ["The Ukrainian oligarchs are a group of [[business oligarch]]s that quickly appeared on the economic and political scene of [[Ukraine]] after its independence in 1991. Overall there are 35 oligarchic groups. "], "United States": ["Some contemporary authors have characterized current conditions in the United States as oligarchic in nature. [[Simon Johnson (economist)|Simon Johnson]] wrote that \"the reemergence of an American financial oligarchy is quite recent\", a structure which he delineated as being the \"most advanced\" in the world. [[Jeffrey A. Winters]] wrote that \"oligarchy and democracy operate within a single system, and American politics is a daily display of their interplay.\" The top 1% of the U.S. population by wealth in 2007 had a larger share of total income than at any time since 1928. In 2011, according to [[PolitiFact]] and others, the top 400 wealthiest Americans \"have more wealth than half of all Americans combined.\"", "In 1998, [[Bob Herbert]] of [[The New York Times]] referred to modern American plutocrats as \"The Donor Class\" (list of top donors) and defined the class, for the first time, as \"a tiny group\u2014just one-quarter of 1 percent of the population\u2014and it is not representative of the rest of the nation. But its money buys plenty of access.\"", "French economist [[Thomas Piketty]] states in his 2013 book, [[Capital in the Twenty-First Century]], that \"the risk of a drift towards oligarchy is real and gives little reason for optimism about where the United States is headed.\"", "A 2014 study by political scientists Martin Gilens of [[Princeton University]] and [[Benjamin Page]] of [[Northwestern University]] stated that \"majorities of the American public actually have little influence over the policies our government adopts.\" The study analyzed nearly 1,800 policies enacted by the US government between 1981 and 2002 and compared them to the expressed preferences of the American public as opposed to wealthy Americans and large special interest groups. It found that wealthy individuals and organizations representing business interests have substantial political influence, while average citizens and mass-based interest groups have little to none. The study did concede that \"Americans do enjoy many features central to democratic governance, such as [[Elections in the United States|regular elections]], [[Freedom of speech in the United States|freedom of speech]] and [[Freedom of association|Association]], and a widespread ([[Voter suppression in the United States|if still contested]]) [[Suffrage|franchise]].\" Gilens and Page do not characterize the US as an \"oligarchy\" per se; however, they do apply the concept of \"civil oligarchy\" as used by [[Jeffrey A. Winters|Jeffrey Winters]] with respect to the US. Winters has posited a comparative theory of \"oligarchy\" in which the wealthiest citizens \u2013 even in a \"civil oligarchy\" like the United States \u2013 dominate policy concerning crucial issues of wealth- and income protection.", "Gilens says that average citizens only get what they want if wealthy Americans and business-oriented interest groups also want it; and that when a policy favored by the majority of the American public is implemented, it is usually because the economic elites did not oppose it. Other studies have questioned the Page and Gilens study.", "In a 2015 interview, former President [[Jimmy Carter]] stated that the United States is now \"an oligarchy with unlimited political bribery\" due to the [[Citizens United v. FEC]] ruling which effectively removed limits on donations to political candidates. [[Wall Street]] spent a record $2 billion trying to influence the [[2016 United States presidential election]]."]}, "Intellectual oligarchies": ["[[George Bernard Shaw]] defined in his play [[Major Barbara]], premiered in 1905 and first published in 1907, a new type of Oligarchy namely the intellectual oligarchy that acts against the interests of the common people: \u201cI now want to give the common man weapons against the intellectual man. I love the common people. I want to arm them against the lawyer, the doctor, the priest, the literary man, the professor, the artist, and the politician, who, once in authority, is the most dangerous, disastrous, and tyrannical of all the fools, rascals, and impostors. I want a democratic power strong enough to force the intellectual oligarchy to use its genius for the general good or else perish.\u201d "], "Minority rule": ["The exclusive consolidation of power by a [[dominant minority|dominant religious or ethnic minority]] has also been described as a form of oligarchy. Examples of this system include the [[United States]] during the early republic, South Africa under [[apartheid]], [[Liberia]] under [[Americo-Liberians]], the [[Sultanate of Zanzibar]], and [[Rhodesia]], where the installation of oligarchic rule by the descendants of foreign settlers was primarily regarded as a legacy of various forms of [[colonialism]].", "The modern United States has also been described as an oligarchy because economic elites and organized groups representing special interests have substantial independent impacts on U.S. government policy, while average citizens and mass-based interest groups have little or no independent influence."], "Putative oligarchies": ["* Owners are the largest private owners in the country.", "* It possesses sufficient political power to promote its own interests.", "* Owners control multiple businesses, which intensively coordinate their activities."], "See also": ["* [[Aristocracy]]", "* [[Dictatorship]]", "* [[Inverted totalitarianism]]", "* [[Iron law of oligarchy]]", "* [[Kleptocracy]]", "* [[Meritocracy]]", "* [[Military dictatorship]]", "* [[Minoritarianism]]", "* [[Nepotism]]", "* [[Netocracy]]", "* [[Oligopoly]]", "* [[The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism|Oligarchical Collectivism]]", "* [[Parasitism (social offense)|Parasitism]] ", "* [[Plutocracy]]", "* [[Political family]]", "* [[Power behind the throne]]", "* [[Stratocracy]]", "* [[Synarchism]]", "* [[Theocracy]]", "* [[Timocracy]]"], "first_par": ["Oligarchy is a form of [[power structure]] in which [[Power (social and political)|power]] rests with a small number of people. These people may or may not be distinguished by one or several characteristics, such as [[nobility]], [[Celebrity (disambiguation)|celebrity]], [[wealth]], [[education]], [[corporate]], [[religious]], [[political]], or [[military]] control. ", "Throughout history, oligarchies have often been [[tyrant|tyrannical]], relying on public obedience or oppression to exist. [[Aristotle]] pioneered the use of the term as meaning rule by the rich, for which another term commonly used today is [[plutocracy]]. In the early 20th century [[Robert Michels]] developed the theory that democracies, like all large organizations, have a tendency to turn into oligarchies. In his \"[[Iron law of oligarchy]]\" he suggests that the necessary division of labor in large organizations leads to the establishment of a ruling class mostly concerned with protecting their own power."]}, "main_pages": {"Minority rule": ["Minoritarianism"]}}}